Grammatical Concepts 101 for Biblical Hebrew THIS IS NOT FINAL TEXT
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
Grammatical Concepts 101 for Biblical Hebrew Second Edition
Gary A. Long
K
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
© 2002, 2013 by Gary Alan Long Published by Baker Academic a division of Baker Publishing Group P.O. Box 6287, Grand Rapids, MI 49516-6287 www.bakeracademic.com The first edition was published in 2002 by Hendrickson Publishers under the title Grammatical Concepts 101 for Biblical Hebrew: Learning Biblical Hebrew Grammatical Concepts through English Grammar. Printed in the United States of America All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—for example, electronic, photocopy, recording—without the prior written permission of the publisher. The only exception is brief quotations in printed reviews. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Long, Gary A. (Gary Alan), 1959– Grammatical concepts 101 for biblical Hebrew / Gary A. Long. — Second edition. pages cm. Includes bibliographical references (pages ) and index. ISBN 978-0-8010-4874-6 (pbk.) 1. Hebrew language—Grammar. 2. English language—Grammar. 3. Bible. O.T.—Language, style. I. Title. PJ4567.3.L66 2013 492.4 82421—dc232012045435 The internet addresses, email addresses, and phone numbers in this book are accurate at the time of publication. They are provided as a resource. Baker Publishing Group does not endorse them or vouch for their content or permanence. 13â•…14â•…15â•…16â•…17â•…18â•…19â•…â•…â•…7â•…6â•…5â•…4â•…3â•…2â•…1
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
To the memory of Robert L. Alden
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜C Conten
Contents
Expanded Table of Contents€€€€viii List of Figures€€€€xiii Acknowledgments for the Second Edition€€€€xv Acknowledgments for the First Edition€€€€xvi Introduction€€€€xvii
Part 1: Foundations Linguistic Hierarchies€€€€3 Sound Production€€€€7
Syllable€€€€18 Translation€€€€19
Part 2: Building Blocks Gender€€€€29 Number€€€€31 Article€€€€33 Conjunction€€€€39 Nominal€€€€44 Noun€€€€45 Pronoun€€€€47 Adjective€€€€68 Adverb€€€€80 Participle€€€€85
Infinitive€€€€93 Gerund€€€€97 Verb€€€€99 Tense and Aspect€€€€102 Mood€€€€115 Imperative/2nd Person Volition€€€€129 Jussive€€€€131 Voice€€€€135
Part 3: The Clause and Beyond Clause€€€€145 Subject€€€€149 Predicate/Predication€€€€150
Semantics: Processes, Roles, and Circumstances€€€€166 Discourse Analysis€€€€173
Bibliography€€€€199 Index€€€€201
vii
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Expand↜渕↜Exp↜ E↜渕 Expand
Expanded Table of Contents
List of Figures€€€€xiii Acknowledgments for the Second Edition€€€€xv Acknowledgments for the First Edition€€€€xvi Introduction€€€€xvii Tips for Learning Biblical Hebrew€€€€xviii
Part 1: Foundations
Linguistic Hierarchies€€€€3 Sound Production€€€€7 Consonants€€€€8 Place of Articulation€€€€8 Manner of Articulation€€€€9 Voicing€€€€11 Vowels€€€€13 Tongue Position€€€€13 Lip Position€€€€14 Putting the Pieces Together: Simple Vowels€€€€14 Putting the Pieces Together: Diphthong Vowels€€€€16 Syllable€€€€18 English€€€€18 Biblical Hebrew€€€€18 Translation€€€€19 Translations€€€€22 Translating Homework in First-Year Biblical Hebrew Courses€€€€25
Part 2: Building Blocks
Gender€€€€29 English€€€€29 Biblical Hebrew€€€€30 Nouns€€€€30 Verbs€€€€30 Number€€€€31 English€€€€31 Biblical Hebrew€€€€32 Article€€€€33 English€€€€33 Indefinite Article€€€€33
viii
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Expand↜渕↜Exp↜ E↜渕 Expand
Definite Article€€€€33 Biblical Hebrew€€€€34 Articular Nominals€€€€35 Nonarticular Nominals€€€€37 Conjunction€€€€39 Conjunction or Preposition?€€€€39 English€€€€39 Coordinating Conjunctions€€€€39 Subordinating Conjunctions€€€€40 Conjunction or Preposition?€€€€40 Biblical Hebrew€€€€40 Coordinating Conjunctions€€€€40 Subordinating Conjunctions€€€€41 Conjunction or Preposition?€€€€41 Catalog of the Semantic Connections of Conjunctions€€€€41 Nominal€€€€44 Noun€€€€45 English€€€€45 Biblical Hebrew€€€€45 Pronoun€€€€47 English€€€€48 Personal Pronoun€€€€48 Possessive Pronoun€€€€49 Interrogative Pronoun€€€€50 Demonstrative Pronoun€€€€51 Reflexive Pronoun€€€€52 Relative Pronoun€€€€53 Biblical Hebrew€€€€57 Personal Pronoun€€€€57 Possessive Pronoun€€€€59 Interrogative Pronoun€€€€59 Demonstrative Pronoun€€€€61 Reflexive Pronoun€€€€61 Relative Pronoun€€€€61 Adjective€€€€68 English€€€€68 Descriptive Adjective€€€€68 Possessive Adjective€€€€71 Interrogative Adjective€€€€71 Demonstrative Adjective€€€€72
ix
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜E Expand↜E↜Exp↜ E↜E Expand
Biblical Hebrew€€€€73 Descriptive Adjective€€€€73 Possessive Adjective€€€€77 Interrogative Adjective€€€€78 Demonstrative Adjective€€€€78 Adverb€€€€80 English€€€€80 Biblical Hebrew€€€€81 Broad Use of the Term Adverbial€€€€84 Participle€€€€85 English€€€€85 Verbal Participle€€€€85 Adjectival Participle€€€€86 Biblical Hebrew€€€€88 Adjectival Participle€€€€89 Relative Participle€€€€91 Verbal Participle€€€€91 Infinitive€€€€93 English€€€€93 Biblical Hebrew€€€€94 Infinitive Absolute€€€€95 Infinitive Construct€€€€95 Gerund€€€€97 English€€€€97 Biblical Hebrew€€€€98 Verb€€€€99 Finite and Nonfinite€€€€99 Transitive and Intransitive€€€€99 Fientive and Stative€€€€100 Tense and Aspect€€€€102 English€€€€102 Tense€€€€102 Aspect€€€€104 Aktionsart€€€€110 Biblical Hebrew€€€€110 Tense€€€€112 Aspect€€€€113 Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation€€€€113 Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation€€€€114
x
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
_Long_Grammatical-FM_WT_bb.indd 10
1/18/13 9:44 AM
↜渕 Expand↜渕↜Exp↜ E↜渕 Expand
Mood€€€€115 English€€€€115 Real Mood = Indicative Mood€€€€116 Irreal Mood€€€€117 Biblical Hebrew€€€€123 Real Mood = Indicative Mood€€€€124 Irreal Mood€€€€124 Imperative/2nd Person Volition€€€€129 English€€€€129 Biblical Hebrew€€€€130 Jussive€€€€131 English€€€€131 1st Person Volition€€€€131 2nd Person Volition€€€€132 3rd Person Volition€€€€132 Biblical Hebrew€€€€133 Voice€€€€135 English€€€€136 Active Voice€€€€136 Passive Voice€€€€137 Reflexive Voice€€€€137 Middle Voice€€€€138 Biblical Hebrew€€€€140 Active Voice€€€€140 Passive Voice€€€€141 Reflexive Voice€€€€141 Middle Voice€€€€142
Part 3: The Clause and Beyond
Clause€€€€145 Independent and Main€€€€145 English€€€€145 Biblical Hebrew€€€€146 Dependent or Subordinate€€€€146 English€€€€146 Biblical Hebrew€€€€147 Anatomy of a Verbal Clause€€€€147 Adverbial Complement€€€€148 Adverbial Adjunct/Modifier€€€€148
xi
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Expand↜渕↜Exp↜ E↜渕 Expand
Subject€€€€149 English€€€€149 Biblical Hebrew€€€€149 Predicate/Predication€€€€150 Verbless Predication€€€€150 Adjective Predicate€€€€151 Adverb(ial) Predicate€€€€152 (Non)Existence Predicate€€€€152 Substantive Predicate€€€€153 Participle Predicate = Verbal Participle€€€€154 S–P vs. P–S€€€€154 Verbal Predication€€€€157 Adverbial Complement (AC)€€€€158 Adverbial Adjunct/Modifier€€€€162 Semantics: Processes, Roles, and Circumstances€€€€166 Semantic Processes€€€€166 Material = Doing€€€€166 Mental = Sensing€€€€167 Relational = Being€€€€168 Semantic Roles€€€€169 Semantic Circumstances€€€€170 Discourse Analysis€€€€173 1. Story and Discourse€€€€174 2. Story Happenings and Discourse€€€€174 2.1 Story-Present, Story-Past, and Story-Future€€€€174 2.2 Order€€€€175 2.3 Duration€€€€175 3. Discourse as the Function of Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics€€€€177 3.1 Topic/Topicality€€€€178 3.2 Focus/Focality€€€€179 3.3 Markedness€€€€179 3.4 Markedness for Focus and Connectivity€€€€181 4. A Markedness Approach to Biblical Hebrew Past-Time Narrative€€€€184 4.1 The vayyiqtol€€€€184 4.2 The Non-vayyiqtol€€€€188 5. Illustration€€€€193 6. Concluding Remark€€€€196 Bibliography€€€€199 Index€€€€201
xii
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Figur
Figures 1. Linguistic Hierarchies€€€€3 2. Places of Articulation€€€€11 3. Phonetic Classification of Consonants€€€€13 4. Classification of Tiberian Vowel Phonemes€€€€15 5. Correspondence of the Seven Tiberian Simple Vowel Phonemes to the Five Sabra Simple Vowel Phonemes€€€€16 6. Conceptualizing a Gloss€€€€22 7. Conceptualizing the Translation Task€€€€22 8. Continuum Characterizing English Translations€€€€23 9. Hebrew Number Morphology€€€€32 10. Meanings of Articular and Nonarticular Nominals€€€€35 11. English Subject Personal Pronouns€€€€49 12. English Object Personal Pronouns€€€€49 13. English Possessive Pronouns€€€€50 14. English Demonstrative Pronouns€€€€52 15. English Reflexive Pronouns€€€€53 16. Hebrew Independent Subject Personal Pronouns€€€€58 17. Hebrew Suffixed Object Personal Pronouns€€€€59 18. Hebrew Demonstrative Pronouns€€€€61 19. English Possessive Adjectives€€€€71 20. English Demonstrative Adjectives€€€€72 21. Hebrew Possessive Suffixes€€€€78 22. Hebrew Demonstrative Adjectives€€€€78
xiii
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Figur
23. English Absolute Tense€€€€103 24. The Resultative/Stative€€€€108 25. English Past Perfect/Pluperfect€€€€108 26. English Present Perfect€€€€109 27. English Future Perfect€€€€109 28. English Subjunctive€€€€122 29. Conceptualization of Reflexive vs. Middle Voice€€€€138 30. General Anatomy of Verbal Clauses€€€€148 31. Anatomy of Verbless Clauses€€€€151 32. Detailed Anatomy of Verbal Clauses€€€€158 33. Semantic Roles€€€€169 34. Overview of Common Processes, Roles, and Circumstances€€€€172
xiv
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕↜Acknowledgmen↜↜渕䗕↜↜Ac↜渕↜渕䗕愕欕↜渕↜渕䗕愕欕渕
Acknowledgments for the Second Edition A decade or so has passed since this book first sat on desks. From the very beginning, this book’s chorus of reviewers have offered far more praise than criticism. A second edition may change all that. But it does allow me to keep what has worked and to address my own criticisms and those of my thoughtful reviewers. I am grateful to all who closely read the first edition and offered their insights. I myself have continued to subject no small number of students to this book’s words and ideas. Their puzzled grimaces of despair or head-bobbing affirmations have helped to further shape this new edition. I thank my students, especially Joseph Pruden, Brandon Camp, Nicole Olson Haselberger, Jay Swisher, and Eric Helander. Books often become a dusty, petrified museum piece of regrets for what and how something was said. Not everyone gets the opportunity to swap it out for a fresher, newer exhibit. Sitting at lunch with Jim Kinney, hearing him express Baker Academic’s delight to have adopted my two Grammatical Concepts 101 titles, and musing over their continuing future made for a good day. I am very grateful to him and the staff associated with Baker Academic. Wells Turner, in particular, brought efficient and informed feedback and dialogue to the project. Gary A. Long Twin Cities 2012
xv
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕↜Acknowledgmen↜↜渕䗕↜↜Ac↜渕 Ack↜渕↜渕䗕愕欕渕
Acknowledgments for the First Edition My wonderful students who have walked the same path as I in wanting to learn Biblical Hebrew have been the inspiration behind this book. Hopefully, they will find it the help I want it to be for them. I am indebted to the English Grammar Series (Olivia and Hill Press) for the idea of illustrating English alongside a language to be learned. Brent Hagany, my faithful student assistant at Bethel College, deserves thanks for his careful reading of earlier drafts. I am grateful for the feedback I received from the prepublication use of this work at Harvard University. John Ellison, of that institution, offered advice that helped to recast some of the content’s organization. John Cook generously shared unpublished work that has informed my treatment of aspect and tense related to Biblical Hebrew. John Kutsko, of Hendrickson Publishers, has guided this project through to publication with efficiency and grace. For that I am most appreciative. Each has brought improvement. Errors and insufficiencies that still remain, of course, are entirely my own doing. Lifelong thanks go to my Doktorvater, Dennis Pardee, of the University of Chicago. It is he who patiently guided me through the foundations of my discipline in Northwest Semitic languages and Ancient Near Eastern studies—a discipline I have now been fortunate to have taught for a decade. Robert Alden first introduced me to the world of the Hebrew Bible. A professor at Denver Seminary, he modeled a passion for embracing life—from teaching, to climbing all of the Rocky Mountains’ “14ers” (twice, if not thrice). Death, a few years back, took him much too early. He saw me, seemingly, as a student needing help in speaking English more correctly. English is my mother tongue, but around Professor Alden I soon discovered that I seemingly had slept through lessons on grammar during high school and college. I remember well his stopping me often in midsentence to correct me. I saw it as a gesture born of his care. I think dedicating to his dear memory a book that teaches grammar is fitting. G. A. Long Twin Cities April 2002
xvi
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕↜渕䤕渕璕狕漕撕çfl•æ„•ç’•
Introduction Designed to complement standard teaching grammars, this book assists the entrylevel Biblical Hebrew student in learning basic grammatical concepts no single teaching grammar treats adequately and no reference grammar explains plainly enough for many beginning students. We revisit English grammar to accomplish this. After several years of teaching a variety of ancient Semitic languages, I recognize that most of my students have been learning two languages at the same time: the ancient language, of course, and the grammar and grammatical concepts of English, often forgotten. Do not think of this book as you would most others. This book is not necessarily to be read cover to cover. Chapters and sections are to be read as they relate to particular areas of study you’re pursuing in your primary textbook. Because I see most of you reading a slice here and there, I have tried to include many cross-references pointing forward and backward to concepts closely related to the section you are reading. I have written the book for a learner who has had little or no formal study of grammar. The language, therefore, strives for simplicity wherever possible. Some will find the language at times (overly) simplistic. I define nouns, for example, as words that name, rather than according to formal and functional criteria like case and number inflection, syntactic functions, distribution (they follow prepositions but not modals), etc. Others, still, may find the language at times a bit of a challenge. You, the reader, will see abundant English and Hebrew examples illustrating each concept, most of them visually analyzed. A gloss (a literal, word-by-word English equivalent of the Hebrew) and translation assist the comprehension of the Hebrew examples. Sometimes within my discussion of English grammar, I refer to particular constructions as “prestige” and “colloquial.” Like many languages, English has an acrolect, a basilect, and points in between. An acrolect is the prestige variety of a language; a basilect is the colloquial form. But language use is dynamic and ever changing. So-called correct grammar is often at odds with how we actually speak and write. It can be complicated to judge language use as right or wrong, though it was all pretty clear to Professor Alden, who routinely stopped me in class to “correct” me. (It is to his memory that I have dedicated this book.) Within the halls of the academy, though, the commonest surroundings I envision for this textbook, I have thought it
xvii
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕↜渕䤕渕璕狕漕撕çfl•æ„•ç’•
pedagogically useful to use English’s acrolect, its prestige forms, while still pointing out pertinent colloquial ones. The academy, on occasion, still tries to identify and expect the acrolect of its students. The concepts in this book are arranged from the more basic to the more involved. Part 1, “Foundations,” contains concepts that lie at the very foundation of language. Part 2, “Building Blocks,” treats concepts in an order similar to many teaching grammars. Here the learner can augment a teaching grammar’s presentation. Part 3, “The Clause and Beyond,” introduces the learner to the higher levels of language. This resource is not comprehensive in subject matter, and it does not show the full variety of ways Biblical Hebrew may convey a particular concept. Many of the concepts I address are more completely analyzed in Biblical Hebrew reference grammars. Consult them as you become more familiar with grammar and as your ability to read Hebrew increases over time.1 They are indispensable.
Tips for Learning Biblical Hebrew Memory. Your memory plays an important role in learning a language. You 1. will spend many hours memorizing vocabulary, paradigms, grammatical rules, and the like. Here are some thoughts that may help you with those tasks. • Divide the lesson into learnable sections. • Read each section aloud several times. • Rewrite the section word-for-word or in your own words. • Compare what you have written with the textbook.
1.╯For example, Bruce K. Waltke and M. O’Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990); P. Joüon, A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew (trans. and revised by T. Muraoka; corr. 2nd ed.; Rome: Gregorian and Biblical Press, 2009); Christo H.€J. van der Merwe, Jackie A. Naudé, and Jan H. Kroeze, A Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar (Biblical Languages: Hebrew 3; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999).
xviii
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕↜渕䤕渕璕狕漕撕çfl•æ„•ç’•
2. Vocabulary. Each of us brings different abilities to the learning process. In learning a language, you will likely learn a lot about yourself—what works for you and what does not. Some strategies will work, some will not. Try a lot of things and stick with anything that helps you learn. Here is what other learners have tried. Most of the items in this list have cognitive linguistic experimentation to support their benefits.2 • Try to have fun. Being grumpy or overly stressed has been shown not to help. • Discover websites or software devoted to vocabulary learning. • Physically act out new words or draw pictures associated with them. • Repeat the words aloud several times. • Write each word on a blank vocabulary card: Hebrew on one side, English on the other. As you encounter them, devote cards to common, multiword “bundles,” for example, idioms ( ַּבת/ ֵּבן+ = ָׁשנָ הexpressing age of a person), other noun-noun combinations ( ַּ֫ביִת+ “ = ָאבhousehold”), verbs with their different preposition complements, etc. • Use cards of different color to assist you with helpful classifications: gender of nominals (one color for masculine, another for feminine nouns), or parts of speech (one color for verbs, another for adjectives). • Flip through the cards reading the Hebrew aloud, then think of the English gloss (= literal translation). Flip through the cards, reading the English and saying the Hebrew aloud. Shuffle the cards so that you do not become too reliant on order and placement. • Get into the habit of reading Hebrew text. • Most Biblical Hebrew words have a foundation, usually of three root consonants. This means that most all words that share the same root are related 2.╯Jeremy Thompson, “Learning Biblical Hebrew Vocabulary: Insights from Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition” (PhD diss., University of Stellenbosch, 2011).
xix
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕↜渕䤕渕璕狕漕撕çfl•æ„•ç’•
in meaning—they share a linkedness or connectedness. For example, you will learn the nouns ֶ֫מ ֶלְךking and ַמ ְל ָּכהqueen. You will learn verbal forms like ָמ ַלְךhe ruled and ָמ ֫ ַל ְכ ִּתיI ruled. The root Öמלכ/mlk underlies all of these words. Get the connection? Try grouping vocabulary cards by their common root. 3. Assignments. Keep up with the assignments. Do not let yourself fall behind. Morale, to say nothing of grades, can nose-dive when you do not keep pace.
xx
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
Part 1 Foundations
LINGUISTIC HIERARCHIES
LINGUISTIC HIERARCHIES One of many helpful ways to view language is to see it as a fusion of the abstract (EMIC) with the tangible (ETIC). Think of a word in your head. Now think of an entire sentence. Think of a few more things you could say. No one knows what you have just thought. This emic realm of language is abstract, not tangible, existing only in your mind. The emic is the conceptual realm of language. Now say aloud what you had in your mind, or take a pen and write it down. This etic realm of language is physically represented when one speaks or writes (or gestures, if one communicates through sign language). Language is physically produced through sounds, or phones (see below), or by writing symbols, graphs. These sounds and written symbols are the building blocks of words, phrases, and clauses that can be conveyed to another person.
EMIC
ETIC
emic discourse or text
etic discourse or text
emic paragraph
etic paragraph
emic sentence
etic sentence or utterance
emic clause
etic clause
emic phrase
etic phrase
emic word or lexical item
etic word or lexical item
lexeme
lex
morpheme
morph
phoneme
phone Figure 1: Linguistic Hierarchies
3
Expression
We can break down language into building blocks or hierarchies. Each of the following units, listed from smallest to largest (bottom to top in figure 1), has an emic and etic realm. The term expression is convenient to refer to a written or oral articulation of language at the level of word or higher when one does not have a specific level in mind.
LINGUISTIC HIERARCHIES
PHONE(ME)
is a sound or speech unit that is psychologically a single unit and that makes a difference. Make a /z/ sound, as in zebra. Now make a /v/ sound, as in victory. The sounds or speech units /z/ and /v/ are psychologically each a single unit, and each makes a difference. The first word, after all, makes no sense if we say vebra; and zictory is equally nonsensical. K7lebe@0 does not clearly communicate that you mean to say K7leme0. Linguists use slashed lines to represent phonemes. These abstract units often have variations when articulated as phones. Sounds next to each other, whether another consonant or a vowel, can affect each other. These variations are known as ALLOPHONES. For example, hold your hand close to your mouth and say the words pin and spin. Notice that the /p/ of pin includes a more explosive burst of air than the /p/ of spin.
MORPH(EME)
is the smallest or minimal block of language that is meaningful and recurrent for word-building in a language. The notion of meaningful is important. A phone(me) is the smallest block, but it does not convey meaning. What, after all, does /b/ mean? It does not mean anything. All sorts of concepts are conveyed in morphemes: plurality, singularity, tense, gender, etc. Morphemes may have variations known as ALLOMORPHS. For example, the morpheme ‘plural of a noun’ has the allomorphs /s/ (cats), /z/ (lids), and /ǝz/ (forces). In Hebrew, the morpheme ‘feminine’ is conveyed through the allomorphs h F- and t- for singular nominals (see NOMINAL, p. 44).
LEX(EME)
is the typically foundational element of a word or lexical item. The idea of a lex(eme) is not the easiest to comprehend. In English it is typically represented as the dictionary form of any word. For example, a person learning English may encounter the word kicked in a text; the dictionary will have the word entered simply as kick. Kick, represented on the page as k-i-c-k, is the lex, while the (emic) concept behind the word, ‘kick’, is the lexeme. The notion of lex(eme) is simpler in Biblical
4
LINGUISTIC HIERARCHIES
Hebrew. The consonantal root underlying a word may be considered the lexeme; for example, the root √MLK is the lexeme underlying K7leme0 king or hk@fl;ma queen. WORD
is a language building block composed of a lexeme and all morphemes. For example, the etic lexical item, or word, kicked is composed in part of the lexeme ‘kick’ plus the morpheme ‘past tense’, reflected in the morph -ed. Parsing is in fact accounting for the lexemic and morphemic composition of a word. The etic verb form hbft;k@f\ she wrote is composed of the lexeme √KTB plus the morphemes ‘Qal’, ‘Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation’, ‘third person’, ‘feminine’, and ‘singular’.
PHRASE
is a language unit referring to a string of words (a syntagm)— two or more—that does not involve predication (see PREDICATE/PREDICATION, p. 150). Think of a PREDICATE as a comment about a subject. A phrase does not have a subject and a predicate together. in the house
tyIb0a@ba@
a small book
N+fqf rpes0' small
CLAUSE
book
is a language unit referring to a string of words (a syntagm) that does involve predication. It involves a COMMENT, very commonly about a subject, which is usually present (see CLAUSE, p. 145). עֵ ץ
הַ ִמּזְ ֵבּ ַח
The altar was wood.
tree/wood
the-altar
Ezekiel 41:22
A subject (or topic) and predicate (or comment) are together, or juxtaposed, in the example. Here the subject is הַ ִמּזְ ֵבּ ַחthe altar. The predicate or comment about the subject is עֵ ץwas wood.
5
LINGUISTIC HIERARCHIES
SENTENCE
is a language unit referring to a string of words that includes predication and that in Biblical Hebrew is typically composed of one independent clause and all modifying subordinate clauses. By this definition, a sentence composed of only one independent, unmodified clause is both a clause and a sentence. (The above example from Ezekiel 41:22 fits this case.) A sentence, however, is a difficult and somewhat arbitrary concept to define, particularly for a linking/chaining language like Biblical Hebrew. Main clause after main clause may be linked by the conjunction w: and. Biblical Hebrew can have several verbal clauses that are joined with vav but share a single subject or adverbial or adjectival element.
PARAGRAPH
is a language unit that in Biblical Hebrew is typically composed of two or more sentences, usually with a similar topic. Two or more sentences may be equally prominent, or prominent sentences may occur along with modifying sentences (such as reason or result).
DISCOURSE
is the highest of the linguistic hierarchies, typically composed of a large “chunk” of text (see DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, p. 173).
6
SOUND PRODUCTION
SOUND PRODUCTION Why should we be concerned with sound production? Nobody today converses in Biblical Hebrew, after all—a fair question. The Hebrew Bible’s audience primarily heard rather than read the text. The sounds of Biblical Hebrew can affect not only spelling but word choice. Reading aloud as you study Biblical Hebrew will help you learn it faster and understand better what you are reading. It will also help you appreciate some of the fabulous stylistic features lost in translation. We are indebted to the Karaite families of Ben Naphtali and Ben Asher for the Biblical Hebrew texts from which we learn to read. This is the Tiberian system, and what we read is known as the Masoretic Text (MT), and it is marvelously precise. In “wiggles and jots and dots” placed over and under and within a text consisting mostly just of consonants, their system was the written equivalent of a sound recording. Tiberian Hebrew is, in a sense, dead. Neither of the prominent surviving Jewish communities—Ashkenazi and Sephardi—speaks Hebrew the way the Karaite family preserved it in the Masoretic Text. The Hebrew spoken today across the global Jewish communities is quite varied. So how do we go about pronouncing the Biblical Hebrew you’re learning? There’s no one correct answer, and there are many approaches. Commonly, though, you’ll find yourself in a classroom that either approximates a Tiberian pronunciation or prefers a Modern Hebrew vocalization similar to that of Israelis. Now, even saying “a Modern Hebrew vocalization similar to that of Israelis” has its problems. Hebrew spoken today in Israel is influenced, in part, by Sephardi and Ashkenazi. In Jerusalem, for example, among Sephardi families, you can hear a dialect closer to “traditional” Sephardi Hebrew. In this book, we’re going with Modern Hebrew, primarily. The classifications and sound descriptions I use below follow what is commonly called Sabra Hebrew. A “sabra” is a Hebrew idiom, referring to a Jewish Israeli born and raised in Israel.
7
SOUND PRODUCTION
This is an extremely common, if not the commonest, pronunciation one hears throughout Israel among the now several generations of sabras. Despite an “official” more Arabic-like or more Sephardi pronunciation of the language, Sabra Hebrew is what you’ll most likely hear throughout the land. Speech SOUNDS or SEGMENTS are the fundamental components of a spoken language. Created along the VOCAL TRACT (the area between the vocal folds and lips), they tend to be classified according to the amount of obstruction involved in producing them. Vowel sounds are generally produced with less obstruction than consonantal sounds. The following discussion has Biblical Hebrew being pronounced as Sabra Hebrew.
CONSONANTS PLACE OF ARTICULATION, MANNER OF ARTICULATION, and VOICING are concepts commonly associated with producing consonants. PLACE OF ARTICULATION The place of articulation is the point in the vocal tract where the greatest constriction or obstruction occurs (see figure 2 below). The Biblical Hebrew consonants include the following articulatory places. Labials
sound formed by the lips
Bilabials
sound formed by the two lips together: בּ, מ, פּ
Labiodentals
sound formed with the lower lip tucked just behind the upper front teeth: ב, ו, פ
Dentals
sound formed with the tip of the tongue touching the back of the upper front teeth (no Hebrew consonant is precisely a dental, though many grammar books classify some as such; Hebrew consonants classified as dentals are more appropriately alveolars)
Alveolars
sound formed with the tip of the tongue raised to the bony ridge immediately behind the teeth, the alveolar ridge: דּ, ד, ז, ט, ל, נ, ס, צ, שׂ, תּ, ת 8
SOUND PRODUCTION
Alveopalatals
sound formed with the tip of the tongue raised to the bony ridge immediately behind the teeth and at the hard palate: י, שׁ
Velars
sound formed with the center and dorsum of the tongue raised to the velum or soft palate: ח, כּ, כ, ק
Uvulars
sound formed with the dorsum of the tongue raised to the uvula: ר
Pharyngeals sound formed in the upper pharyngeal cavity (Sabra Hebrew has no pharyngeal, but Tiberian Hebrew as well as Modern Israeli Sephardi Hebrew produce the חand עas pharyngeals) Glottals
sound formed in the glottal region, the opening between the vocal folds: א, ה, ע
MANNER OF ARTICULATION The vocal tract can affect airflow. Manner of articulation refers to the manner or way that the sound is produced, usually in terms of the amount of constriction the airflow encounters. Biblical Hebrew has OBSTRUENTS and SONORANTS. Obstruent
a distinctive feature that characterizes speech sound when airflow is constricted
Plosive/Stop
obstruent sound made by temporarily blocking the airflow completely: א, בּ, גּ, ג, דּ, ד, ט, כּ, ע, פּ, ק, תּ, ת
Fricative
obstruent sound in which the airflow is channeled through a narrow opening in the speech path: ב, ה, ו, ז, ח, כ, ס, פ, ר, שׂ, שׁ Within the fricative category you should take note of the SIBILANTS. Higher frequency energy is required to produce sibilants, giving them a hissing sound. The sibilants are ז, ס, צ, שׂ, and שׁ.
9
SOUND PRODUCTION
Affricative
obstruent sound in which the airflow for a single consonant consists of a plosive/stop followed by a secondary fricative release: צ
Trill
obstruent sound where vibration occurs; the Sabra Hebrew pronunciation of syllable-initial /r/ is a fricative to which vibration is added: ר a distinctive feature that characterizes speech sound whose articulation is not so narrow that the airflow across the glottis is appreciably inhibited
Sonorant
Nasal
sonorant sound made with a lowered velum, thus engaging the natural resonance of the nasal passages—the oral cavity is closed so that air flows through the nasal cavity: מ, נ
Liquid
sonorant sound in which the speech path is neither closed off nor constricted to a degree that produces friction Under the label of liquids, Biblical Hebrew has a
Lateral
Glide
where the tip of the tongue is raised to the alveolar ridge but the sides of the tongue are down, permitting the air to flow laterally over the sides of the tongue: ל sonorant consonant vowellike sounds that precede or follow a true vowel: י
10
SOUND PRODUCTION
Hard Palate Alveolar Ridge
Nasal Cavity Soft Palate or Velum
Uvula
Tongue Tip Blade Pharynx Center Dorsum Epiglottis Esophagus
Vocal Folds
Larynx
Figure 2: Places of Articulation
VOICING Voicing refers to the vibration of the vocal folds during the production of a sound. If the vocal folds are tense and the airflow from the lungs forces them to vibrate, the consonantal sounds are VOICED. If the air flows freely through the relaxed vocal folds into the supraglottal speech organs, the consonantal sounds are VOICELESS. Put several of your fingers on the front of your throat. Pronounce /v/ as in victory; now pronounce /f/ as in fine. Did you feel the vibration associated with pronouncing victory and the lack of it in saying fine? Here are the Hebrew consonants that have voicing: בּ, ב, גּ, ג, דּ, ד, ו, ז, י, ל, מ, נ, ר We are ready to summarize the consonants. 11
SOUND PRODUCTION
PLACE
VOICING
MANNER
א
glottal
voiceless
plosive
בּ
bilabial
voiced
plosive
ב
labiodental
voiced
fricative
גּג
velar
voiced
plosive
דּד
alveolar
voiced
plosive
ה
glottal
voiceless
fricative
ו
labiodental
voiced
fricative
ז
alveolar
voiced
fricative
ח
velar
voiceless
fricative
ט
alveolar
voiceless
plosive
י
alveopalatal
voiced
glide
כּ
velar
voiceless
plosive
כך
velar
voiceless
fricative
ל
alveolar
voiced
lateral
מם
bilabial
voiced
nasal
נן
alveolar
voiced
nasal
ס
alveolar
voiceless
fricative
ע
glottal
voiceless
plosive
פּ
bilabial
voiceless
plosive
פף
labiodental
voiceless
fricative
צץ
alveolar
voiceless
affricative
12
SOUND PRODUCTION
ק
velar
voiceless
plosive
ר
uvular
voiced
fricative trill3
שׂ
alveolar
voiceless
fricative
שׁ
alveopalatal
voiceless
fricative
תּת
alveolar
voiceless
plosive
Figure 3: Phonetic Classification of Consonants
VOWELS Vowel sounds have little obstruction in Biblical Hebrew. For vowels we distinguish QUALITY (or TIMBRE), the difference in vowel sound production along the speech path, and QUANTITY (or DURATION or LENGTH), the time involved in producing the vowel sound. Further, TONGUE POSITION and LIP POSITION are important factors. A SIMPLE (or PURE) vowel refers to one with a single sound. A DIPHTHONG is a sequence of two sounds consisting of a simple vowel plus a glide. The following treatment looks at each individually. TONGUE POSITION Here one may note (1) the height of the tongue and (2) the part of the tongue employed. The tongue height may be HIGH, MID, or LOW. High vowels are also known as CLOSE vowels; low ones are OPEN. The part of the tongue used may be the FRONT (tip and blade), CENTER, or BACK (dorsum). For example, the vowel sound in the English word beet is high and front; boot is high and back; hot is low and back;
3
Resh is commonly pronounced in this fashion when it is the onset of a syllable (= syllable-initial). When it occurs as the coda of a syllable (= syllable-final), the trill commonly does not occur, but the throat is constricted at the uvula.
13
SOUND PRODUCTION
boat is mid and back; bought is between mid and low and back; cup is mid and central. LIP POSITION Vowel sounds differ depending on whether the lips are rounded. For example, in the previous paragraph, the vowel in boot was characterized as high and back, but it also entails lip rounding, while hot (low and back) has an unrounded vowel. PUTTING THE PIECES TOGETHER: SIMPLE VOWELS The charts below combine the features we use to describe the vowels of Biblical Hebrew. Simple vowels are those with a single sound. Remember that the Hebrew Bible we read is Tiberian Hebrew and the text itself is called the Masoretic Text (MT). The Masoretes were scholars who developed a series of symbols to represent vowel sounds and added them to the much older text written only with consonants (some of those consonants, though, doubled as vowel sounds: א, ה, ו, )י. This process began toward the end of the first millennium C.E. Because the Masoretes have left behind so much “chatter” on the page for vowels, accented syllables, and the like, we need to spend time understanding their system and how it relates to Sabra Hebrew. The MT has seven vowel qualities (or timbres). In Tiberian Hebrew, vowel quantity (or length) likely plays no role, with the exception of the ḥaṭef vowels: ◌ ֱ , ◌ ֲ , and ◌ ֳ . They are ultrashort, murmured vowel qualities. Among the seven non-ḥaṭef vowels, many Hebrew grammars nonetheless talk of long and short vowels. Such classification, however, is based more on other differences such as tenseness (the muscular tension used) and vowel quality. Think of English. We do not have a formal system of pronouncing vowels for a shorter or longer period of time. We do, however, label the vowel sound in pit as “short” while the vowel sound in peat is “long.” We pronounce the vowels, though, for the same amount of time!
14
SOUND PRODUCTION
Again, with the exception of the ḥaṭef vowels, the seven vowel qualities of Tiberian Hebrew are not pronounced for a longer duration than others. Those seven vowel timbres can be classified as follows: Tongue Height
Part of Tongue Front
Center
Back rounded
unrounded Close
High Mid
Open
/i/(= ◌ִ ,ִ ) ִ◌י
/u/(= ◌ ֻ , )וּ
/e/(= ◌ ֵ , ◌י ֵ , ◌ה ֵ ) /ε/(= ◌ ֶ , ◌י ֶ , ◌ה ֶ )
/o/(= ◌ ֹ , ) ֹו /ɔ/(= ◌ ָ , ◌ה ָ )
/a/(= ◌ ַ )
Low
Figure 4: Classification of Tiberian Vowel Phonemes
The Tiberian Hebrew vowel phonemes (see PHONE[ME], p. 4): /i/(= ◌ִ , ) ִ◌יwas pronounced generally as [i] as in machine. /e/(= ◌ ֵ , ◌י ֵ , ◌ה ֵ ) was pronounced generally as [e] in they. /ε/(= ◌ ֶ , ◌י ֶ , ◌ה ֶ ) was pronounced generally as [ε] in bet. /a/(= ◌ ַ ) was pronounced generally as [a] in father. /ɔ/(= ◌ ָ , ◌ה ָ ) was pronounced generally as [ɔ] in fort or German Sonne. /o/(= ◌ ֹ , ) ֹוwas pronounced generally as [o] in note. /u/(= ◌ ֻ , )וּwas pronounced generally as [u] in mood. Sabra Hebrew pronunciation has only five simple vowel timbres reflecting the seven in Tiberian Hebrew. Vowel quantity or length, as in Tiberian Hebrew, plays no role. The next chart traces the correspondences.
15
SOUND PRODUCTION
Tiberian Vowel Phonemes /i/ = ◌ִ , ִ◌י /e/ = ◌ ֵ , ◌י ֵ , ◌ה ֵ /ε/ = ◌ ֶ , ◌י ֶ , ◌ה ֶ /a/ = ◌ ַ /ɔ/ = ◌ ָ , ◌ה ָ
Sabra Vowel Phonemes /i/ /ε/
/a/
(= ◌ִ , ) ִ◌י
pronounced as [i] as in machine
(= ◌ ֵ , ◌י ֵ , ◌ה ֵ )
pronounced as [ε] in bet 4
(= ◌ ֶ , ◌י ֶ , ◌ה ֶ ) (= ◌ ַ )
pronounced as [a] in father
(= ◌ ָ , ◌ה ָ )
(= ◌ ָ in a closed, /o/ unaccented syllable)
/o/ = ◌ ֹ , ֹו
pronounced as [o] in note
(= ◌ ֹ , ) ֹו /u/ = ◌ ֻ ,וּ
/u/
(= ◌ ֻ , )וּ
pronounced as [u] in mood
Figure 5: Correspondence of the Seven Tiberian Simple Vowel Phonemes to the Five Sabra Simple Vowel Phonemes
PUTTING THE PIECES TOGETHER: DIPHTHONG VOWELS A diphthong, remember, is a sequence of two sounds consisting of a simple vowel plus a glide sound. In Sabra Hebrew pronunciation, diphthongs end with the only glide sound that dialect has preserved, the alveopalatal, voiced glide (y): ִמ ְצ ַ ֫ריְ מָ ה Egypt-toward
Thus, for example, the diphthong ◌י ַ in our example word begins by producing the appropriate simple vowel sound associated with ◌ ַ and ends with the alveopalatal, voiced glide. What you should hear is a sound similar to how American English pronounces eye. In the Tiberian or Masoretic Hebrew dialect, diphthongs also end with ו, which was pronounced as a labiovelar, voiced glide (the sound of w in now): עַ וְ לָ ה malice
4
You will also hear individual speakers pronounce this timbre as [e] in they.
16
SOUND PRODUCTION
So the Tiberian dialect would have pronounced that last word as /ʕawlɔ/ (the important point to focus on is the /aw/ in the middle), while the Sabra dialect vocalizes it as /ʔavla/ (again, just focus on the /av/ in the middle). /aw/ is a diphthong, while /av/ is not. Your introductory grammar book, if it spends a fair amount of time discussing phonology around Tiberian Hebrew, thus likely talks of diphthongs ending in י and ו.
17
SYLLABLE
SYLLABLE A SYLLABLE is a sound or phonological unit composed of (1) an ONSET and (2) a NUCLEUS, and it may also have (3) a CODA.
ENGLISH In the English bed, /b/ is the onset, /ε/ is the nucleus, and /d/ is the coda.
BIBLICAL HEBREW In Biblical Hebrew, syllables must begin with a consonant; that is, they must have a consonant onset. No syllable in Biblical Hebrew ever begins with a vowel (except the conjunction vav when vocalized as w%). A syllable in Biblical Hebrew may be either OPEN or CLOSED. ¾ An open syllable ends in a vowel (Cv = Consonant, followed by vowel). It has an onset (C-) and a nucleus (-v-), but no coda. rbf / d@F d¢ / b¢r
The first syllable is open, Cv.
word
¾ A closed syllable ends in a consonant (CvC). It has an onset (C-), a nucleus (-v-), and a coda (-C). rbf / d@F d¢ / b¢r
The second syllable is closed, CvC.
word
18
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION What is happening when two people talk or write? They are, in part, encoding and decoding a code. This is likely not the answer you readily had in mind. Let’s think of the phenomenon of language having at least two concepts: ¾ FORM, or to be more linguistically technical, CODE, and ¾ MEANING. We often say that words carry meaning, words convey what we mean, we put meaning into our words. Ever-more-known human cognitive processes, however, suggest that “language does not carry meaning, it guides it.”5 Language is code that accesses the riches of our mind’s layers of conceptual processes, prompting us to construct meaning. The meaning we attain draws on our (physical, social, linguistic, cultural, etc.) embeddedness. The minimal code that is language prompts vast networks of mind-resident conceptions, responsible in part for the sometimes frustrating, sometimes funny, sometimes embarrassing mismatches of meaning between languages. (During a hot archaeological dig, I was, for a day or two until thankfully I was corrected, mistakenly expressing how hot I was by expressing how sexually hot I was. I died a thousand deaths!) Our mind-resident conceptions, which are always subject to change, are largely the product of our embodied minds in our world-embedded bodies interacting with(in) our embeddedness. Thus “FORM is the armor, but MEANING is the Achilles that makes the armor so formidable.”6 Form and meaning interweave. They are separate but inseparable. Form alone does not communicate. An unknown language can sound or look like a jumble of nothing—remember what a page of Biblical Hebrew first looked
5
Gilles Fauconnier, Mental Spaces: Aspects of Meaning Construction in Natural Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), xxii.
6
Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner, The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 5 (emphasis mine).
19
TRANSLATION
like to you! Every language has its own specific system for linking its form to what will produce meanings. A spoken and written language has a ¾ PHONOLOGY, a system of sounds (if the language is written, these sounds are connected with a writing system); ¾ LEXICON, that is, a vocabulary; ¾ GRAMMAR, a set of patterns for making meaningful expressions. Though different cultures organize and conceive things differently, we share many things. For example, many cultures express casual greetings. In the morning, those who speak English may convey the greetings as “Good morning.” “Good morning” is the FORM English speakers use to guide the hearer to a meaningful greeting. Form is the unique pattern of a specific language. Each language has its own distinctive form, and the same meaning may be expressed in another language in quite a different form. “Good morning” is an adjective preceding a common noun. A Modern Hebrew speaker might say בוקר טובboqer tov (literally: “morning good”), a grammatically masculine and singular common noun followed by a grammatically masculine singular adjective. In Nigeria, in Hausa, one might say Ina kwana? “How’s sleep?” Again, form is the unique pattern of a specific language. I have been talking about the word mean(ing). Let me use it to illustrate something. Consider the following expressions. 1. That was no mean (insignificant) accomplishment. 2. They are so mean (cruel) to me. 3. This will mean (result in) the end of our regime. 4. This means so much (is so important) to me. 5. I mean (intend) to help if I can. 6. Keep Off the Grass! This means (refers to) you. 7. Those clouds mean (are a sign of) rain. 8. She doesn’t mean (believe) what she said.
20
TRANSLATION
These expressions illustrate that one form or pattern, in this case the letters M-E-A-N, guides one to different meanings. Now, consider the following expressions: 1. Is this seat taken? 2. May I sit here? 3. Is this seat empty? These are three different forms to express one meaning, namely, to express the intent of a person wanting to sit. Different forms may thus express one similar, if not identical, meaning. In working with languages, you will quickly discover that expressions that retain similar form may actually solicit very different meanings. Consider the English expression “His heart is cold,” which can mean “He is unfeeling.” When transferred word for word, literally, into Mambila (a language in Nigeria), the meaning associated with that form in that language is “He is peaceful.” When the same is done into Cinyanja (a language in Zambia), the meaning is “He is afraid.”7 Hopefully, you see a problem here. Very different meanings might be triggered by word-for-word transference into another language. The starting point of translation is the SOURCE LANGUAGE (SL). For the Hebrew Bible, the source languages are Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic. A translation should attempt to guide the SL meaning into a TARGET LANGUAGE (TL). By now you have seen that form in each language is unique. Thus, translation must entail a change in form. This change in form does not matter provided that the meaning the message solicits is unchanged. Translation is not simply a process of only taking SL words or phrases and transferring them into similar TL words and phrases. That is,
7
Examples come from Katharine Barnwell, Introduction to Semantics and Translation (2nd ed.; Horsley Green, England: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1980), 12.
21
TRANSLATION
SL:
word/phrase
word/phrase
word/phrase
TL:
word/phrase
word/phrase
word/phrase
Figure 6: Conceptualizing a Gloss
This is known among translators as a GLOSS. It is not the same as a translation. The translation task, rather, is one of understanding the forms of the SL and distilling the meaning from the SL vocabulary and grammar and re-expressing that meaning into TL forms that will trigger the equivalent SL meaning. SL: EXPRESSION Distill meaning from the vocabulary and grammar of Biblical Hebrew phrases, sentences, even entire paragraphs, then output the meaning into target language equivalents and idioms
TL: EXPRESSION Figure 7: Conceptualizing the Translation Task
You must discover the meaning of the source language, in this case Biblical Hebrew, and convey that meaning through the appropriate form of the target language, English.
TRANSLATIONS Thus language involves both form and meaning, and if we set these two on a continuum, we are able to characterize translations according to how form oriented or meaning oriented they are.
22
TRANSLATION
FORM-ORIENTED translations try to follow the form of the SL and are known as literal. MEANING-ORIENTED ones are known as idiomatic or dynamic equivalent. Here is a continuum for characterizing some English translations. FORM
MEANING
COMPLETELY LITERAL
MODIFIED LITERAL
Interlinear
KJV NASB
IDIOMATIC
NRSV
NIV NAB
GNB NJB
CEV
Figure 8: Continuum Characterizing English Translations
COMPLETELY LITERAL. An interlinear is completely literal, completely form oriented. Its value lies in showing the exegete the precise word order and other forms of the SL. Here is a completely literal presentation of 2 Samuel 7:1: And-it-was when-sat the-king in-house-his and-YHWH caused-rest-tohim from-around from-all-enemies-his. MODIFIED LITERAL. These translations modify the form of the SL just to the extent that the sentence structure is acceptable in the TL. Individual words, however, tend to be translated literally. The result is that though the sentence structure is correct, the translation may not sound natural and may not convey meaning clearly. Here is a modified literal translation of 2 Samuel 7:1: And it came about when the king lived in his house, and the LORD had given him rest from all his enemies all around, . . . Notice that the sentence structure is not wrong, but to a native English speaker, the expression “And it came about” and a king living in a “house” (not a palace) sound less than natural. The value of a modified literal translation can be that it does not go far “beyond” the SL. But that can cut two ways. The translation does not give much more than the SL, but it also may not give enough to bring clarity. Here is where idiomatic translations can be helpful as well as perilous. 23
TRANSLATION
IDIOMATIC. These translations strive to use natural forms—grammatical constructions and words—of the TL to convey the meaning of the SL. A truly idiomatic translation will sound like it was written originally in the TL; it will not sound like a translation. This is the goal of most Bible translators today entrusted with the task of providing Scriptures to groups who still do not have a translation of the Bible. Here is an idiomatic translation of 2 Samuel 7:1: When the king had settled into his palace and the LORD had given him rest from all the enemies surrounding him, . . . To make an important point about the value and peril of idiomatic translations, I want to use a classic example from the Greek New Testament. This is a completely literal presentation of 1 Corinthians 11:10: Because-of this ought the woman authority have on the head because-of the angels. Here are a couple of idiomatic translations of 1 Corinthians 11:10: On account of the angels, then, a woman should have a covering over her head to show that she is under her husband’s authority. (GNB = Good News Bible) And so, because of this, and also because of the angels, a woman ought to wear something on her head, as a sign of her authority. (CEV = Contemporary English Version) The value of seeing these two translations is that we can see their attempt to bring clarity to a rather ambiguous verse. GNB understands “woman” to be a wife (because it uses “husband”), and it makes clear that a wife is to be under her husband’s authority. CEV, while not committing to “woman” versus “wife,” conveys that a woman has her own authority. She has within herself the right to behave as she sees fit. She just ought to wear something as a sign of this. The peril, as you now likely see, is that these two meaning-oriented translations express two very different meanings. I have chosen an extreme case to highlight a peril. Being aware of the peril, though, allows one to be able to embrace cautiously the great value of meaning-oriented translations. They are attempting to bring meaning more clearly to the reader.
24
TRANSLATION
I generally recommend to my students, when they wish to consult a translation, a strategy of reading a variety of translations from the entire form-meaning spectrum.
TRANSLATING HOMEWORK IN FIRST-YEAR BIBLICAL HEBREW COURSES As you begin trying to express Biblical Hebrew in English, you will likely be very form oriented. This, at first, is not a bad idea. It allows your instructor to see that you are understanding the Hebrew forms and patterns. As the year continues, though, and as you gain confidence in the language, strive for a meaningoriented translation.
25
Part 2 Building Blocks
GENDER
GENDER GENDER in language refers to classifying words usually as MASCULINE, FEMININE, or NEUTER. It plays an important structural and syntactic role in many languages, but not in English, where nouns and verbs have no special markings (morphs) for gender. In Biblical Hebrew, gender is important and plays a role in nouns, verbs, and pronouns.
ENGLISH Though English nouns and verbs have no special markings for gender, nouns typically reflect their biological sex. Male entities are masculine. Female entities are feminine. Other things tend to be neuter. When we replace a noun with a pronoun, we assign it gender. ¾ We use masculine pronouns to replace nouns that refer to males. noun male
Joseph understood the dreams. He interpreted them. The officials, though, forgot him. pronoun masculine
pronoun masculine
¾ We use feminine pronouns to replace nouns that refer to females. noun female
The queen was Phoenician. She tried to change the country’s religion. Elijah fought her. pronoun pronoun feminine
feminine
¾ We commonly, but not always, use the neuter pronoun it to replace all other nouns. Workmen chiseled the tunnel. Water flowed through it. noun genderless
29
pronoun neuter
GENDER
But notice exceptions: The ship left Jaffa port. She was going to run into a storm.
BIBLICAL HEBREW The main role of gender in Biblical Hebrew (and in most languages where gender is important) is syntactic; that is, gender helps track CONCORD, or AGREEMENT, connecting related words within a syntagm (a string of words). All nouns in Biblical Hebrew are masculine or feminine or both. Verbal forms also account for gender. NOUNS Most nouns with no special marking (morph) are masculine, though quite a few are feminine, often body parts. ָדּבָ ר
word (masculine)
סוּס
horse (masculine)
ֹ֫אזֶן
ear (feminine)
ֶ֫בּטֶ ן
belly (feminine)
Singular (see NUMBER, p. 31) feminine nouns are commonly marked with an ending, ◌ה ָ - or ת-, and may take an appropriate corresponding plural ending. In addition to biological sex, feminine nouns commonly represent the following concepts: the abstract, collectives, and single entities within collectives. סוּסוֹת,סוּסָ ה ְמלָ כוֹת,מַ ְלכָּ ה ַ ֫דּעַ ת א ְֹר ָחה ִציצָ ה
mare, mares (biological) queen, queens (biological) knowledge (abstract) caravan (collective) (single) flower (within ציץ, ִ collective “flowers”)
VERBS The verbal forms in Suffix (Perfect) and Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugations agree with the gender of the noun that functions as the subject in the clause. Exceptions do occur, but not often.
30
NUMBER
NUMBER NUMBER, as a grammatical concept, refers to the quantity of participants involved with a word. When a word has only one participant, we call it SINGULAR. When a word has more than one participant, the word is PLURAL. Some languages, like Biblical Hebrew, have words that are DUAL, two participants. ¾ Nouns that allow us to enumerate the number of participants are known as COUNTABLE NOUNS. ¾ Nouns that are singular in form yet refer to a group are COLLECTIVE NOUNS. ¾ Verbs convey number, usually agreeing with the number of the grammatical subject of the clause.
ENGLISH We form the plural of (countable) nouns in a variety of ways. ¾ Add the sound [-s] or [-z], often written as -s, or the sound [-ǝz] after a sibilant, often written as -es, to a singular noun path
paths
kid
kids
kiss
kisses
¾ More substantial changes man
men
child
children
mouse
mice
(but if referring to a computer mouse, commonly mouses)
¾ No change sheep
sheep
Collective nouns are singular in form yet refer to a group. American and British English speakers treat collective nouns differently. Americans generally use a verb that is singular, while the British commonly use one that is plural. 31
NUMBER
¾ American English The team is winning. ¾ British English The team are winning.
BIBLICAL HEBREW The forms (morphs) that convey number are sensitive to gender. Hebrew nouns convey singular, dual, and plural. Masculine
Feminine
Singular
no ending
h F- or t-
Dual
MyI A2-
MyI A2-
Plural
My I-
twO-
Figure 9: Hebrew Number Morphology
The dual, though, is restricted to nouns that ¾ occur in natural pairs (like hands); lgerE0 foot
MyIla0g:rA two feet
¾ convey certain expressions of time; MwOy day
MyIma0wOy two days
¾ measure two. MyInA2#$; two The verbal forms of the Suffix (Perfect) and Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugations convey only singular and plural. See your grammar textbook for more details.
32
ARTICLE
ARTICLE An ARTICLE, in part, identifies. Though this is not a most inclusive definition, talking of the article as something that identifies gives us an understanding that can embrace its function in English and its use in Biblical Hebrew.
ENGLISH In English the article identifies; it commonly stipulates whether a nominal is unspecified or specified. We have two primary articles. One we call INDEFINITE. The other we call DEFINITE. INDEFINITE ARTICLE An indefinite article is placed before a nominal when it does not specify a particular person, animal, place, thing, event, or idea. ¾ English places an a before a word that begins with a consonantal sound. Naomi saw a relative. not a specified relative
¾ English places an an before a word that begins with a vowel sound.8 Elijah looked at an altar. not a specified altar
DEFINITE ARTICLE English has one definite article, the. The definite article usually specifies that a nominal is PARTICULAR—a particular person, animal, place, thing, event, or idea. It also can specify that the nominal is CATEGORICAL, that is, when it represents a category of person, animal, place, thing, event, or idea.
8
To be precise, words that we say begin with a vowel sound don’t actually begin with a vowel sound. They actually begin with a glottal, voiceless, plosive (see the chapter SOUND PRODUCTION, p. 7). Say apple or orange. You’re really starting those words not with an a or an o but with that glottal, voiceless, plosive. It’s the same sound as the Sabra Hebrew אand ע.
33
ARTICLE
¾ Particular Elijah looked at the altar. a particular altar
¾ Categorical Israelites were to champion the widow, the orphan, and the poor. not particular people, but categories within society
We identify a definite article as particular or categorical from the text surrounding it, that is, from the textual environment or textual context.
BIBLICAL HEBREW Biblical Hebrew does not have an indefinite article. We therefore have little need to talk of indefinite and definite articles, as we do for English. For Biblical Hebrew, we may talk simply of the article. But, first, an article is not needed to express specified or definite nominals. The following nominals are specified or definite without an article: ¾ Proper nouns ¾ Pronouns ¾ Indefinite nominals in a construct relationship with a definite one ¾ Nominals with a pronoun suffix Nailing down the Biblical Hebrew article exhaustively into simple, clear functions is not an easy task. The following chart offers some of the more common roles— but not all—when the article is used and not used. When a nominal has an article, it is ARTICULAR; when no article is present, it is NONARTICULAR.
34
ARTICLE
Articular
Particular
(with article)
similar
Nonarticular
Indefinite
(without) article
Individual
Categorical
Function & Clarification
similar
Qualitative
Figure 10: Meanings of Articular and Nonarticular Nominals
ARTICULAR NOMINALS The principal form of articular nominals is ◌ּ ַה. Your grammar textbook lists the variations. Consult it. The Biblical Hebrew article identifies, denoting something PARTICULAR—a particular person, animal, place, thing, event, or idea. The articular nominal can also denote that it represents a CATEGORY of person, animal, place, thing, event, or idea. In these first two, we see some crossover with English. Finally, from figure 10 above, the articular nominal is used for FUNCTIONS and CLARIFICATION. Here are a few examples. ¾ Particular a particular servant
ל־ה ֫ ֶעבֶ ד ָ ֶא
ו ַ֫תּ ֹאמֶ ר
She said to the servant.
to-the-servant and-she-said
Genesis 24:65
¾ Categorical
כָּ ָרשָׁ ע
not particular people, but categories within society
כַ צַּ ִדּיק
וְ הָ יָה
so that the innocent and
like-the-wicked like-the-righteous and-he-will-be
the guilty fare alike. Genesis 18:25
35
ARTICLE
¾ Function and Clarification articular attributive descriptive adjective modifying articular substantive הַ ֫ ֶמּלֶ ְך
הַ טּוֹב the-good
הַ ֫ ֶמּלֶ ְך
the good king
the-king articular noun referring back to nonarticular noun
ימלֶ ְך ֶ ֫ א ֱִל
הָ ִאישׁ
וְ שֵׁ ם... ִאישׁ
Elimelech the-man and-name
ַו ֫ ֵיּלֶ ְך
man and-he-walked
Now a man left . . . and the name of the man was Elimelech. Ruth 1:1-2 articular noun identifies הַ יְ לָ ִדיםas the subject in this verbless clause
ַר ִכּים
הַ יְ לָ ִדים
The children are weak.
weak the-children
Genesis 33:13
articular noun identifies הַ ִמּ ְלחָ מָ הas the subject in this verbal clause with הָ יָה
חז ָָקה ֲ הַ ִמּ ְלחָ מָ ה strong
ו ְַתּ ִהי
The warfare was fierce.
the-war and-it-was
1 Samuel 14:52
articular nominal הַ כֹּהֵ ןwith its attributive descriptive adjective הַ גָּדוֹל, functioning as vocative
הַ גָּדוֹל
כּ ֵהן ֹ ְַשׁמַ ע־נָא יְ הוֹשֻׁ ַע ה
the-large the-priest
Joshua
listen
36
Listen, Joshua, O High Priest. Zechariah 3:8
ARTICLE articular Qal passive participle functioning as relative clause
הַ בָּ נוּי
עַ ל־הַ ִמּזְ ֵבּ ַח
on the altar that had been built
the-built
the-altar on
Judges 6:28
The last five examples have demonstrated the following about articular nominals: •
An adjective functions as an attributive descriptive adjective (see p. 68 and p. 73 for a definition) to modify an articular nominal when the adjective is also articular.
•
An articular nominal can refer back to a previously mentioned word or phrase, whether that word or phrase was originally articular or nonarticular. This is known as ANAPHORA.
•
In many clauses without a verb or with the verb הָ יָהto be, the subject commonly has an articular nominal while the predicate does not. This can clarify the subject from the predicate (but it is not a hard-and-fast rule!).
•
An articular nominal may point out a specified addressee, usually in direct speech. This is known as the VOCATIVE.
•
An articular nominal, particularly when the nominal is a participle, can function as the equivalent of initiating a relative clause
NONARTICULAR NOMINALS A nominal that does not have an article—that is, when it is nonarticular—can refer to something INDEFINITE, quite like English’s use of the indefinite article. Nonarticular nominals can specify INDIVIDUAL persons, animals, places, things, events, or ideas. This use focuses on individual identity, often something already marked out or otherwise known. The QUALITATIVE function of nonarticular nominals highlights the essence, the nature, the quality of an item. Figure 10 above shows that the articular nominal’s particular and categorical functions are somewhat similar to the nonarticular’s individual and qualitative functions respectively. Focusing on a particular item is similar to focusing on an individual item. Referring to category is not too dissimilar from referring to a
37
ARTICLE
quality of an item. At the end of the day, it is textual environment or context that determines the function of articular or nonarticular nominals. ¾ Indefinite nonarticular phrase here specifies nothing more than an indefinite calf
בֶּ ן־בָּ ָקר
וַיִּ קַּ ח
He took a calf.
son-of-cattle and-he-took
Genesis 18:7
¾ Individual nonarticular בֵּ ןrefers to Samuel, an individual about to be identified
ְשׁמוּאֵ ל Samuel
ת־שׁמוֹ ְ ֶא DO-name-his
בֵּ ן ו ִַתּ ְק ָרא
ַתּלֶ ד ֵ֫ ו
She bore a son and
and-she-called son and-she-bore
named him Samuel. 1 Samuel 1:20
¾ Qualitative the qualities of anger and kindness
֫ ֶחסֶ ד
וְ ַרב־
אַ ֫ ַפּיִ ם
יהוה ֶ֫א ֶרְך
kindness and-much-of nostrils/anger long-of
YHWH
O YHWH, slow to anger and abounding in kindness. Numbers 14:18
38
CONJUNCTION
CONJUNCTION A CONJUNCTION is a word that links words, phrases, and clauses. We speak of two types of conjunctions: COORDINATING and SUBORDINATING. ¾ Coordinating conjunctions Coordinate conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses that are equal, connecting elements of equal status. ¾ Subordinating conjunctions Subordinate conjunctions join DEPENDENT/SUBORDINATE clauses to main clauses (see CLAUSE, p. 145). A clause that does not stand on its own and must be linked to a main clause is a dependent or subordinate clause. The terms dependent and subordinate are synonymous.
CONJUNCTION OR PREPOSITION? Some conjunctions also function as prepositions. When the word in question introduces a clause, the word is functioning as a conjunction. When the word does not introduce a clause, the word is functioning as a preposition. You will find examples below, under the English and Biblical Hebrew sections.
ENGLISH COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS The primary coordinating conjunctions in English are and, but, and or. ¾ Words heaven and earth ¾ Phrases in the city but outside the house ¾ Clauses Samuel came to Eli, but Eli sent him back.
39
CONJUNCTION
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS Some primary subordinating conjunctions in English are because, if, although, unless, while, and that. Hannah wept because she had no children. subordinate/dependent clause subordinating conjunction main clause
CONJUNCTION OR PREPOSITION? Jonah boarded the ship before it set sail. subordinate/dependent clause subordinating conjunction
Jonah boarded the ship before noon.
object of the preposition
preposition
BIBLICAL HEBREW COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS The primary coordinating conjunctions in Biblical Hebrew are וּ/ ְ וand אוֹ. ¾ Words rhfc;y,Ihaw:
#$wOryt@ihaw:
NgFdF@ha
the grain and the must and the oil
and-the-oil and-the-must the-grain
Hosea 2:10 MT (2:8 Eng.)
¾ Phrases prepositional phrase
hqfz'(j
-Nyb'w% hkowO#&
-Nyb@'
between Socoh and (between) Azeqah
Azeqah and-between Socoh between
1 Samuel 17:1
40
CONJUNCTION
¾ Clauses (l@aqay:wA Nbe)e0
M#$%fmi
xq@ay,IwA
He took from there a stone
and-he-slung stone from-there and-he-took
and slung it. 1 Samuel 17:49
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS Some of the primary subordinating conjunctions in Biblical Hebrew are M)i, r#$e)j, yk@i, and N(ama0l;. CONJUNCTION OR PREPOSITION? As in English, be careful not to confuse when a form is functioning as a conjunction or a preposition. dependent/subordinate clause subordinating conjunction
w%nt;mf\ -d(a hpo% Mybi#$;yO w%nx;nA2)j hmf we-die until here
sitting
Why are we sitting here until we die?
we what
2 Kings 7:3
object of the preposition preposition
NrFxf -d(a
w%)b0oy,FwA
They came as far as Haran.
Haran until and-they-came
Genesis 11:31
CATALOG OF THE SEMANTIC CONNECTIONS OF CONJUNCTIONS Temporal or Chronological Conjunctions z)f rxa)a0 (Nk@'/r#$e)j) yr"xj)a MrE+e0(b@;) w: r#$e)jk@a
yk@i
then after, following
yn'p;li d(a
after
r#$e)j-d(a
before
ht@f(a
then when
41
when before until before now
CONJUNCTION
Logical Conjunctions Continuative z)f P)a Contrast
then
Mg%A
also
w:
lbf)j
moreover, also and, then, further w:
rather
but
wO)
or
K7)a
nevertheless, but
yk@i
rather
spe)0e Purpose
nevertheless, but
qrA
only
(r#$e)j) N(ama0l; Result
w: . . . w:
in order that, so that
r#$e)j
so that
N(am0al;
yk@i
so that
Nk@'-l(a
Nk'lf Inference
either . . . or
so that as a result
as a result
Nk@'
thus
Nk'lf
therefore
Nk@'-l(a therefore Causal/Reason r#$e)j
because
r#$e)j-l(a
because
N(ayA2
because
yk@i-l(a
because
yk@i
because
txat@a0
because
r#$e)jm' Condition
because
M)i
if
w: if/should Concession M)i
unless
yk@i
if
w%l
if (irreal)
M)i-yk@i
42
unless
CONJUNCTION
yk@i
though
l(a
though, despite the fact
Modal Conjunctions (How) Agency or means b@;
by
dyAb@; by Comparison (k@;) . . . k@;
as, like
Nk@' . . . k@;
as . . . so, just as . . . so
r#$e)jk@a Example w:
as
that is, for example (epexegetical vav)
Emphatic Conjunctions lbf)j K7)a hnFm;)f
surely assuredly
Mg%A
indeed
hn%'hi
indeed
truly
43
NOMINAL
NOMINAL We can use the label NOMINAL to refer to any word that does not function as a verb in a clause. A nominal may be ¾ a noun/substantive; ¾ a pronoun; ¾ an adjective; ¾ a participle; ¾ an infinitive (when not used as a verb); ¾ a preposition.
44
NOUN
NOUN A NOUN is a word that names something.
ENGLISH Here are some classifications that nouns name. ¾ Person
David, Moses, Miriam, father, sister
¾ Place
town, country, Israel, Philistia, Ammon
¾ Animal
donkey, fish, Leviathan
¾ Thing
house, gate, road, Sabbath
¾ Activity
running, birth, death
¾ Idea or concept
truth, peace, righteousness
¾ Quality
beauty
A COMMON NOUN is one that does not state the name of a specific person, place, etc. In English, a common noun begins with a lowercase letter, unless of course it starts a sentence. In the list above, all nouns that are lowercase are common nouns. Some use the label SUBSTANTIVE for this type of word. A PROPER NOUN is one that does state the name of a specific person, etc. In English, this type of noun is capitalized. In the list above, all nouns with capital letters are proper nouns. A COMPOUND NOUN is made up of more than one word: ice cream, Jordan Rift.
BIBLICAL HEBREW Nouns generally have the same function in Biblical Hebrew as they do in English. Since capitalization is not a phenomenon in Biblical Hebrew, common and proper nouns are not distinguished in writing. We need to keep track of certain things associated with nouns in Biblical Hebrew. ¾ Gender (see GENDER, p. 29) ¾ Number (see NUMBER, p. 31)
45
NOUN
¾ Function: a noun can have a range of functions in clauses: subject (see SUBJECT, p. 149), direct object of a verb (see DIRECT OBJECT ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT, p. 158), object of a preposition (see PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT/MODIFIER, p. 164), etc.
46
PRONOUN
PRONOUN A PRONOUN is a classification of words we can use as a substitute for a noun (see NOUN, p. 45) or noun phrase. It can refer, therefore, to a person, place, animal, thing, activity, idea or concept, etc. Rather than repeating the proper noun Abraham in the following two sentences, Abraham left Ur. Abraham went to Haran. we can replace the second occurrence of Abraham with a pronoun. Abraham left Ur. He went to Haran. Commonly we use a pronoun only after we have first mentioned the noun to which the pronoun will refer. The noun that the pronoun replaces is known as the REFERENT or ANTECEDENT. This use of the pronoun is known as ANAPHORA or ANAPHORIC use.
After Moses stopped talking, he walked away. pronoun (anaphoric) antecedent
Sometimes we use a pronoun before we have mentioned the noun to which the pronoun refers. In that case, the noun that the pronoun replaces is known as the POSTCEDENT. This use of the pronoun is known as CATAPHORA or CATAPHORIC use or, more commonly, PROLEPSIS or PROLEPTIC use. The pronoun refers to what follows.
47
PRONOUN
After he stopped talking, Moses walked away. postcedent pronoun (cataphoric or proleptic)
The noun to which a pronoun refers, regardless of whether it is the antecedent or the postcedent, can also be called the REFERENT. I prefer this term in the discussions ahead.
ENGLISH We have several types of pronouns in English, the most important of which follow. PERSONAL PRONOUN These pronouns refer to different persons. They change their form depending on their function in a clause. ¾ SUBJECT PERSONAL PRONOUN: Personal pronouns can be used as the subject of a verb (see SUBJECT, p. 149). I talked, and you listened. Who talked? I = subject I is the subject of the verb talked Who listened? You = subject You is the subject of listened
1st person 2nd person
Singular
Plural
I (common)
we (common)
the person speaking
the person speaking + others
you (common)
you (common)
the person spoken to
the persons spoken to
48
PRONOUN
he (masculine) 3rd person
she (feminine)
they (common)
it (neuter)
the entities spoken about
the entity spoken about
Figure 11: English Subject Personal Pronouns
¾ OBJECT PERSONAL PRONOUN: Personal pronouns can be used as the object of a verb or the object of a preposition. The king saw him but spoke to us. The king saw whom? him = object him is the object of the verb saw The king spoke to whom? us = object of preposition us is the object of the preposition to
1st person 2nd person
Singular
Plural
me (common)
us (common)
the person speaking
the person speaking + others
you (common)
you (common)
the person spoken to
the persons spoken to
him (masculine) 3rd person
her (feminine)
them (common)
it (neuter)
the entities spoken about
the entity spoken about
Figure 12: English Object Personal Pronouns
POSSESSIVE PRONOUN These pronouns replace a noun and specify the possessor of the replaced noun. The replacement of a noun is what distinguishes a possessive pronoun from a possessive adjective, which only modifies an existing noun (see POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE, p. 71).
49
PRONOUN
The king’s horse is black. His is black. The queen’s horse is white. Hers is white. As a comparison, look at the following similar sentences, which use possessive adjectives: modifies the noun sheep, thus a possessive adjective
Her sheep pasture on the hill. modifies the noun goat, thus a possessive adjective
Their goat lagged behind the men.
1st person 2nd person
Singular
Plural
mine (common)
ours (common)
the person speaking
the person speaking + others
yours (common)
yours (common)
the person spoken to
the persons spoken to
his (masculine) 3rd person
hers (feminine)
theirs (common)
its (neuter)
the entities spoken about
the entity spoken about
Figure 13: English Possessive Pronouns
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN Interrogative pronouns replace a noun and introduce a question. We use different pronouns based on whether the replaced noun refers to something animate or something inanimate. ¾ ANIMATE •
Who takes the place of the subject of a verb. Who lives in the palace? subject
50
PRONOUN
•
Whom takes the place of the object of a verb or preposition (colloquial: American English speakers commonly use who, rather than whom, the “prestige” form).9 Whom did you see in the palace? [Colloquial: Who did you see in the palace?]
object of verb
To whom did you give the letter? [Colloquial: Who did you give the letter to?]
object of preposition
•
Whose is used in questions of possession or ownership. Balaam found the donkey. Whose is it? Balaam has his donkey. Whose do you have?
¾ INANIMATE: What takes the place of a subject and object of a verb or the object of a preposition. What happened? subject
What did you see in the palace? object of verb
With what did you write the letter? [Colloquial: What did you write the letter with?]
object of preposition
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN These pronouns replace nouns, and we categorize the pronouns according to whether they are NEAR (at hand) or REMOTE (farther/further away),10 and SINGULAR or PLURAL. English makes no distinction for gender. Do not confuse a demonstrative pronoun with a demonstrative adjective (see DEMONSTRATIVE 9
As I mentioned in the introduction, within the halls of the academy, the commonest surroundings I envision for this textbook, it is pedagogically useful to use English’s acrolect, its prestige forms, while pointing out pertinent colloquial forms. The academy, on occasion, still expects the acrolect of its students.
10
In English, we say “farther away” when space is in view, and “further away” when time and other nonspatial relationships are in view.
51
PRONOUN
ADJECTIVE, p. 72). The former replaces a noun, while the latter modifies a noun, usually by standing before the noun. refers to the ram at hand (near)
This is the ram. These are the sheep on the hill. That is the goat that lagged behind. The stubborn ones are those. refers to stubborn ones farther away
(As a comparison, look at the following similar sentences, which use demonstrative adjectives.) modifies the noun ram, which is at hand (near)
This ram belongs to him. These sheep pasture on the hill. That goat lagged behind those men. Those mules are stubborn. Near
Remote
Singular
this
that
Plural
these
those
Figure 14: English Demonstrative Pronouns
REFLEXIVE PRONOUN Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of a clause. Commonly they reflect the verb’s process in some way back to the subject. In sentence structure / syntax, they are often objects of a verb or of a preposition. Semantically, they frequently have the role of BENEFICIARY (for a definition, see SEMANTIC ROLES, p. 169, in the chapter SEMANTICS: PROCESSES, ROLES, AND CIRCUMSTANCES). object of the verb bathed and semantically the role of beneficiary
Bathsheba bathed herself.
52
PRONOUN object of the preposition for and semantically the role of beneficiary
You built a house for yourself.
1st person 2nd person
Singular
Plural
myself (common)
ourselves (common)
the person speaking
the person speaking + others
yourself (common)
yourselves (common)
the person spoken to
the persons spoken to
himself (masculine) 3rd person
herself (feminine)
themselves (common)
itself (neuter)
the entities spoken about
the entity spoken about
Figure 15: English Reflexive Pronouns
RELATIVE PRONOUN These pronouns serve two primary functions. 1. They represent a previously mentioned noun or pronoun, which is known as the REFERENT, or ANTECEDENT, or HEAD. (Each of the labels is interchangeable. We shall settle on the first label for the following discussion.) Eli saw the woman who cried in the courtyard. referent
2. They introduce a RELATIVE CLAUSE (though a preposition governing the relative pronoun may come before the relative pronoun). A relative clause is a type of dependent/subordinate clause. That is, it is a clause that does not stand on its own and must be linked to a previous clause, which may be a main clause or another dependent/subordinate clause (see CLAUSE, p. 145). A relative clause may be either RESTRICTIVE or NONRESTRICTIVE, the discussion of which we shall explore later in this subsection.
53
PRONOUN subject
verb
predicate
main clause
Eli saw the woman who cried in the courtyard. referent
prepositional phrase
dependent/subordinate relative clause
Who cried in the courtyard is not a free-standing clause. In this particular sentence who is a relative pronoun introducing the relative clause.
The form of the relative pronoun depends on (1) its syntactic function within the relative clause and (2) whether the referent is animate or inanimate. A relative pronoun may function within the relative clause as •
a subject;
•
an object of a verb or preposition;
•
a possessive.
¾ SUBJECT OF A RELATIVE CLAUSE We use different relative pronouns depending on whether the referent is animate or inanimate. •
Animate referent Ö who referent
relative clause
Eli saw the woman who cried in the courtyard. Who is the subject of the verb cried.
•
Inanimate referent Ö which or that referent
Ehud ran from Eglon’s palace, which was in Moab. Which is the subject of the verb was.
54
relative clause
PRONOUN referent
relative clause
Ehud ran from a palace that was in Moab. That is the subject of the verb was.
¾ OBJECT OF A VERB OR PREPOSITION WITHIN A RELATIVE CLAUSE We use different relative pronouns depending on whether the referent is animate or inanimate. English speakers commonly omit relative pronouns when they function as objects of verbs or prepositions within relative clauses. Here they are within parentheses as appropriate. •
Animate referent Ö whom referent
relative clause
Hannah is the woman (whom) Eli saw. Whom is the object of the verb saw; Eli is the subject.
relative clause; here a preposition comes first, governing the pronoun
referent
Hannah is the woman to whom Eli spoke. [Colloquial: Hannah is the woman Eli spoke to.]
Whom is the object of the preposition to.
•
Inanimate referent Ö which or that referent
relative clause
Ehud ran from the palace(, which) Eglon built. Which is the object of the verb built; Eglon is the subject.
55
PRONOUN referent
relative clause
Ehud ran from a palace (that) Eglon built. That is the object of the verb built; Eglon is the subject.
relative clause; here a preposition comes first, governing the pronoun
referent
Ehud ran from the palace from which Eglon ruled. [Colloquial: Ehud
ran from the palace (that) Eglon ruled from.]
referent
Which is the object of the preposition from.
¾ POSSESSIVE WITHIN A RELATIVE CLAUSE The possessive modifier whose is a relative pronoun. Its form does not change regardless of its function or referent. referent
relative clause
These are the people whose houses Sennacherib destroyed. possessive modifying houses
¾ RESTRICTIVE VERSUS NONRESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES A RESTRICTIVE relative clause restricts or limits the referent. Such a clause is essential to helping the reader or hearer understand the identity of the referent. In English these clauses do not use commas to set them off from the rest of the sentence. They are introduced by who, whom, or that.
56
PRONOUN referent
main clause
Eli saw the woman who cried in the courtyard. restrictive relative clause
The relative clause here is essential in identifying the referent, the woman. Envision a situation in which there may be many women. This relative clause restricts the referent to one particular woman crying in the courtyard whom Eli saw.
A NONRESTRICTIVE relative clause does not restrict or limit the referent. The referent is already clearly known. Such clauses simply offer more known information about a referent. In English these clauses do use commas to set them off from the rest of the sentence. They are introduced by who, whom, or which. referent
main clause
Ehud ran from Eglon’s palace, which was in Moab. nonrestrictive relative clause
The relative clause here is not essential in identifying the referent, Eglon’s palace. The clause is merely giving more known information about Eglon’s palace. One already knows that Eglon’s palace sits in Moab. The clause is nonrestrictive.
BIBLICAL HEBREW PERSONAL PRONOUN These pronouns refer to different persons. They change their form depending on their function in a clause. In Hebrew, we make an important distinction between INDEPENDENT and SUFFIXED pronouns, also known as PRONOMINAL suffixes. ¾ SUBJECT PERSONAL PRONOUN: Independent personal pronouns can be used as the subject in a clause (see SUBJECT, p. 149). w%nx;n2F)j
NrFxfm'
We are from Haran.
we from-Haran
Genesis 29:4
57
PRONOUN
Here are the forms of the independent personal pronouns. Singular 1st person
ykinO)f/ ynI)j (common)
w%nx;nA2)j (common)
the person speaking
the person speaking + others
ht@f)a/t@f)a (masculine)
Mt@e)a (masculine)
t@;)a (feminine)
hn%Ft@'0)a/ Nt@e)a (feminine)
the person spoken to
the persons spoken to
)w%h (masculine)
hm@fh'0/ Mh' (masculine)
2nd person
3rd person
Plural
)yhi (feminine)
hn%Fh'0 (feminine)
the entity spoken about
the entities spoken about
Figure 16: Hebrew Independent Subject Personal Pronouns
¾ OBJECT PERSONAL PRONOUN: Personal pronouns can be used as the object of a verb or object of a preposition. Hebrew uses suffixed pronouns. •
Object of a verb When a pronoun is the object of a verb, a pronominal suffix is added either (1) to the so-called direct object marker, אֵ ת/ אֹתor (2) to the verb directly. Mtf)o
Myhilo)v God
DO-them
K7rEb0fy:wA
God blessed them.
(mp) and-he-blessed
Genesis 1:28
ynIw%b0bfs;
They surround me.
they-surround-me
Psalm 109:3
The forms of pronominal suffixes added to the so-called direct object marker are quite straightforward. •
Object of a preposition When a pronoun is the object of a preposition, a pronominal suffix is added directly to the preposition.
58
PRONOUN
Myhilo)v
Mhelf
rme)y2o,wA
God said to them . . .
God to-them and-he-said
Genesis 1:28
The combinations of pronominal suffixes on the so-called direct object marker, on verbs, and on prepositions produce a great deal of variance. No single chart can capture them all without likely being too complicated to be of significant help. You should consult your grammar book as you go through the year of learning. The following chart, however, cites the range of the forms of the suffixed pronouns.
1st person
2nd person
Singular
Plural
y I , ynI (common)
w%n (common)
the person speaking
the person speaking + others
K1 (masculine)
Mke (masculine)
K7 (feminine)
Nke (feminine)
the person spoken to
the persons spoken to
w%h, h O, wO, w (masculine)
Mhe, M F (masculine)
hf, h@ F (feminine)
Nhe, N F (feminine)
the entity spoken about
the entities spoken about
3rd person
Figure 17: Hebrew Suffixed Object Personal Pronouns
POSSESSIVE PRONOUN Biblical Hebrew does not have possessive pronouns, that is, free-standing possessing pronouns that replace a noun. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN These pronouns replace a noun and introduce a question. Biblical Hebrew, like English, uses different pronouns based on whether the replaced noun refers to something animate or something inanimate. ¾ ANIMATE: one pronoun, ymi, takes the place of a subject of a verb, or object of a verb or preposition, and is used in questions of possession or ownership.
59
PRONOUN
•
Subject of a verb subject
K1l; •
dyg%Ihi ymi
Who told you?
to-you he-told who
Genesis 3:11
Object of a verb or preposition object of verb
xla#$;)e
ymi-t)e
Whom shall I send?
I-shall-send
DO-whom
Isaiah 6:8
object of preposition
ht@f)a •
-ymil;
To whom do you belong?
you to-whom
Genesis 32:18 MT (32:17 Eng.)
Questions of possession or ownership t@;)a
ymi
-tb@a
Whose daughter are you?
you whom daughter-of
Genesis 24:23
¾ INANIMATE: one pronoun, hm, with a variety of vocalizations, takes the place of a subject of a verb and an object of a verb or preposition. •
Subject of a verb subject
•
y(i#$;p%i -hma
What is my crime?
crime-my what
Genesis 31:36
Object of a verb or preposition object of verb
tfy#&i0(f hme
What have you done?
you-did what
Genesis 4:10 object of preposition
(da)'
hm@fb@a
By what shall I know?
I-shall-know by-what
Genesis 15:8
Consult your grammar book for the various vocalizations of this particular pronoun. 60
PRONOUN
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN As in English, these pronouns replace nouns. Unlike English, however, Biblical Hebrew has only one set of demonstrative pronouns, which are both near and remote, and they denote gender. Again, do not confuse a demonstrative pronoun with a demonstrative adjective (see DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE, p. 78). The former replaces a noun, while the latter modifies a noun, usually by standing after the noun and being articular. Near/Remote Singular Plural
hze (masculine) t)zo, wOz, hzo (feminine) hl@e)'0, l)' (common)
Figure 18: Hebrew Demonstrative Pronouns
rbfdF@ha
hze
This/That is the word. . . .
the-word this/that
rce)0'
Numbers 30:2 MT (30:1 Eng.)
-yn'b;@ hl@e)'0
Ezer sons-of
These/Those are Ezer’s sons: . . . Genesis 36:27
these
REFLEXIVE PRONOUN Biblical Hebrew does not use reflexive pronouns. Reflexivity is conveyed through certain stems (for example, Nifal and Hitpael). RELATIVE PRONOUN Biblical Hebrew’s relative pronouns are used for two types of relative clauses: (1) the DEPENDENT or ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE, which modifies a referent, and (2) the oddly labeled INDEPENDENT RELATIVE CLAUSE. The former is similar to how English’s relative pronoun functions—it is linked to a previously mentioned noun or pronoun. The latter is independent and is not relative to another word or word-group around it. The commonest relative pronoun is r#$e)j. Another relative pronoun is -#$e/-#$a plus doubling of the following consonant, where permissible. Yet another bun-
61
PRONOUN
dling is hze , w%z, and wzo/hzo. Biblical Hebrew thus has three primary types of relative pronouns: (1) r#$e)j, (2) the -#$ type, and (3) the -z type. Unlike English, the form of the relative pronoun in Biblical Hebrew is frozen—it does not change, regardless of its syntactic function within the relative clause or whether a referent/antecedent/head is animate or inanimate. Yes, the language has three primary forms—r#$), -#$, and -z—but the choice of which form is used does not depend on its syntactic function or on animacy/inanimacy. Let us look at the two types of relative clauses in turn. Dependent or Attributive Relative Clause As in English, the relative pronouns, when associated with dependent or attributive relative clauses, serve two primary functions. 1. They represent a previously mentioned noun or pronoun—the referent, antecedent, or head. referent
Ng%Fha
-K7wOtb@; r#$e)j
the-garden in-middle-of
C('hf . . .
that the-tree
. . . the tree that is in the middle of the garden Genesis 3:3
2. They introduce a DEPENDENT or ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE. This type of relative clause is a dependent/subordinate clause. That is, it is a clause that does not stand on its own and is linked to a previous clause, which may be a main clause or another dependent/subordinate clause (see CLAUSE, p. 145). Biblical Hebrew has no formal distinction between restrictive and nonrestrictive relative clauses. No special punctuation or other written indicators convey the distinction that occurs in English.
62
PRONOUN predicate subject
dependent/subordinate relative clause
Ng%Fha
referent, which is in previous clause
-K7wOtb@; r#$e)j
the-garden in-middle-of
C('hf . . .
that the-tree
. . . the tree that is in the middle of the garden Genesis 3:3
Ng%Fha-K7wOtb@; r#$e)j is not a free-standing clause. In this particular sentence r#$e)j is a relative pronoun introducing a dependent/attributive relative clause within the sentence. A relative pronoun may function within the dependent/attributive relative clause as •
a subject;
•
an object of a verb or preposition;
•
a possessive.
¾ SUBJECT OF A DEPENDENT/ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE referent
Ng%Fha
-K7wOtb@; r#$e)j
the-garden in-middle-of
C('hf . . .
that the-tree
. . . the tree that is in the middle of the garden Genesis 3:3
r#$e)j is the subject of this verbless relative clause (see VERBLESS PREDICATION, p. 150).
63
PRONOUN referent
Myd@i#&;k@a
rw%)m'
K1yti0)c'wOh r#$e)j hwhy ynI)j
Chaldees from-Ur-of I-brought-you
who
YHWH
I am YHWH, who brought you out
I
from Ur of the Chaldees Genesis 15:7 r#$e)j is the subject of the verb yti)c0'wOh.
¾ OBJECT OF A VERB OR PREPOSITION WITHIN A DEPENDENT/ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE
Biblical Hebrew quite commonly places a RESUMPTIVE PRONOUN within the relative clause. This clearly specifies the syntactic function of the relative pronoun. referent resumptive pronoun object of verb
referent
relative clause
hmfy:r0Fc;mi Egypt-toward
yti)o Mt@er:kam;-r#$e)j DO-me
you-sold
Mkeyxi)j
Ps'wOy ynI)j
who brother-your Joseph
I
I am Joseph, your brother, whom you sold into Egypt. Genesis 45:4
The resumptive pronoun, yti),o is here the direct object within the relative clause. It is the resumption of the relative pronoun, r#$e).j This clearly shows that r#$e)j is the object of the verb Mt@er:kam.; r#$e)j refers back to Mkeyxi),j which is in the main clause and of course is animate, but that makes no difference in Biblical Hebrew.
64
PRONOUN
referent
relative clause
ydIm@f(i
ht@ft0anF r#$e)j
beside-me you-placed
h#$%f)ihf . . .
. . . the woman whom you put beside me
who the-woman
Genesis 3:12 No resumptive pronoun occurs in this relative clause. r#$e)j is the object of the verb [emailprotected]
resumptive pronoun object of preposition
referent
referent
relative clause
hfyle0(f bk'#$o ht@f)a r#$e)j
CrE)f0hf . . .
on-her
the-land
lying
you which
. . . the land on which/where you are dwelling Genesis 28:13
The resumptive pronoun hf- is the object of the preposition, thus hfyl2e(f. The pronoun is the resumption of the relative pronoun, r#$e)j. This clearly shows that r#$e)j is the object of the preposition. r#$e)j refers back to CrE)f0hf. Notice that CrE)f0hf is a feminine singular noun. This is why the resumptive pronoun is 3fs: it must agree in gender and number with the noun to which it ultimately is referring.
¾ POSSESSIVE WITHIN A DEPENDENT/ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE Possession is commonly shown through a RESUMPTIVE PRONOUN.
65
PRONOUN resumptive pronoun possessive suffix
referent
referent
relative clause
wOn#o$l;
(ma#$;ti-)lo r#$e)j
ywOg% . . . . . . a nation whose language
language-his you-understand not which nation
you will not understand. Deuteronomy 28:49
The resumptive pronoun wO- conveys possession, his language. We can call it a pronominal possessive suffix. The pronominal suffix is the resumption of the relative pronoun, r#$e)j. This shows that r#$e)j is the possessor of the language. r#$e)j refers back to ywOg.% Notice that ywOg% is a masculine singular noun. This is why the resumptive pronoun is 3ms: it must agree in gender and number with the noun to which it ultimately is referring.
¾ RESTRICTIVE VERSUS NONRESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES Biblical Hebrew, unlike English, does not have a formal marking system to distinguish restrictive from nonrestrictive relative clauses. Meaningful judgment must guide the reader in making the distinction. Among the Hebrew examples cited above under this discussion of the relative pronoun, the following citation can be seen as a RESTRICTIVE relative clause: Genesis 3:3 (p. 63). Among those same examples, the following can be seen as NONRESTRICTIVE relative clauses: Genesis 15:7 (p. 64); Genesis 45:4 (p. 64). Independent Relative Clause The oddly labeled independent relative clause is a clause that is not relative to another word or word group around it. The whole clause, including the relative pronoun, can function as a basic syntactic element of a main clause—as a subject (see SUBJECT, p. 149), for example, or as an adverbial (see under VERBAL PREDICATION, p. 157). It can be part of a construct chain or the object of a preposition.
66
PRONOUN adverbial: direct object adverbial complement
independent relative clause
verb (+subject)
wOtyb'@ -l(a r#$e)j-t)e
wcay:wA
DO-who
and-he-commanded
house-his over
He commanded the one who was over his house. Genesis 44:1
Here the independent relative clause, wOtyb'@-l(a r#$e),j functions as the ADVERBIAL, specifically, the DIRECT OBJECT ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT (see p. 158) of the verb. This particular relative clause is so “independent,” in fact, that it likely refers to a person’s title within the royal household: One who is over (the) house or, simply, the steward. We could offer this translation: “He commanded his steward.” independent relative clause functioning as the SUBJECT
h#&f(f r#$e)j hwhy he-did
what
YHWH
adverbial: prepositional phrase adverbial adunct/modifier verb (+subject agreement)
yn'y('b@;
(rAy,'wA
What he did was evil in
in-eyes-of it-was-evil
YHWH’s opinion. Genesis 38:10
67
ADJECTIVE
ADJECTIVE An ADJECTIVE is a word that modifies or describes a noun or a pronoun. We generally classify adjectives according to how they describe a noun or pronoun. Adjectives are ADNOMINAL phenomena; that is, they are most closely linked to nouns, precisely what ad-nominal means. As a contrast, adverbs are most closely linked to verbs, ad-verb.
ENGLISH The main types of adjectives we see in English are (1) descriptive, (2) possessive, (3) interrogative, and (4) demonstrative. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE A descriptive adjective describes a characteristic or quality. It answers the question what kind? This type of adjective may be an ATTRIBUTIVE or a PREDICATE adjective. It may also function as a noun itself—a SUBSTANTIVE adjective. Descriptive adjectives may compare a noun’s attribute—a COMPARATIVE adjective— and convey the highest or lowest degree of an attribute—a SUPERLATIVE adjective. Attributive Descriptive Adjective An attributive descriptive adjective modifies a noun, often by preceding it. true prophet attributive descriptive adjective modifying prophet
false prophet attributive descriptive adjective modifying prophet
Predicate Descriptive Adjective A predicate descriptive adjective makes a comment about a noun or pronoun. It follows a linking verb, most commonly a form of be, though seem, appear, become, feel, and taste are frequent. The prophet’s words were true. predicate descriptive adjective asserting a comment about the prophet’s words
linking verb
68
ADJECTIVE
He is good. The manna tastes fine. predicate descriptive adjective asserting a comment about the manna
linking verb
The Negev sun feels hot. Substantive Descriptive Adjective A substantive descriptive adjective is one that functions as a noun. It does not modify another noun but becomes a noun in function. The poor live outside the city gate. The rich live by the palace. The king invited only the wealthy. Comparative Descriptive Adjective A comparative descriptive adjective conveys when nouns have a greater, lesser, or equal degree of an attribute. Here is how English routinely conveys comparison, though with exceptions. ¾ Comparison of greater degree •
“short” adjective + -er + than + noun whose attribute is surpassed Goliath is taller than David. David is the noun with the surpassed attribute Goliath is the noun that possesses a greater degree of the attribute tall
David is younger than Goliath. •
more + “long(er)” adjective + than + noun whose attribute is surpassed Goliath is more experienced than David.
•
a form different from the base adjective This meal is better (base = “good”) than the one at lunch.
69
ADJECTIVE
¾ Comparison of lesser degree •
not as + adjective + as + noun whose attribute is unsurpassed Saul is not as brave as David. Saul is the noun that possesses a lesser degree of the attribute brave
•
David is the noun with the unsurpassed attribute
less + adjective + than Israel’s army is less experienced than the Philistines’.
¾ Comparison of equal degree •
(as +) adjective + as + noun whose attribute is equaled Goliath is (as) tall as a tree. Goliath is the noun that possesses an equal degree of the attribute tall
tree is the noun with the equaled attribute
Superlative Descriptive Adjective A superlative descriptive adjective conveys the highest or lowest degree of an attribute. ¾ Superlative of highest degree •
the + “short” adjective + -est Goliath is the tallest among the champions.
•
the most + “long(er)” adjective Goliath is the most experienced among the champions.
¾ Superlative of lowest degree •
the least + adjective David is the least experienced.
70
ADJECTIVE
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE A possessive adjective describes or modifies a noun by stating who possesses it. The owner is the POSSESSOR and the modified noun is the POSSESSED. Singular
Plural
1st person
my (common)
our (common)
2nd person
your (common)
your (common)
his (masculine) 3rd person
her (feminine) its (neuter)
their (common)
Figure 19: English Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective has only the possessor in mind, not the possessed. That is, it does not agree in gender or number with the possessed. Jael’s tent peg is new. possessor
Her tent peg is new. noun possessed
Solomon’s wives lived at the palace. possessor
His wives lived at the palace. noun possessed
INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE An interrogative adjective asks a question about a noun. Which and what are interrogative adjectives when they are in front of the noun and ask a question. The form never changes regardless of the syntactic function of the modified noun. Which road leads to Ashqelon? modifies the subject, road
71
ADJECTIVE
From which town did you come? modifies town, the object of the preposition from
What vineyard do you want? modifies the object, vineyard
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE A demonstrative adjective points out a noun. Think of the related word demonstrate. The demonstrative adjective demonstrates; it points out. We categorize demonstrative adjectives according to whether they are NEAR (at hand) or REMOTE (farther/further away)11 and SINGULAR or PLURAL. English makes no distinction for gender. Near
Remote
Singular
this
that
Plural
these
those
Figure 20: English Demonstrative Adjectives
This clay jar is Abigail’s, but those jars are Nabal’s. refers to one clay jar at hand
refers to many jars farther away
We make a clear distinction between demonstrative adjectives and demonstrative pronouns (see DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN, p. 51). ¾ Demonstrative adjectives stand before a noun and modify it. This ram belongs to him. These sheep pasture on the hill. That goat lagged behind those men. Those mules are stubborn.
11
In English, we say “farther away” when space is in view, and “further away” when time and other nonspatial relationships are in view.
72
ADJECTIVE
¾ Demonstrative pronouns replace a noun and thus do not modify one. This is the ram. These are the sheep on the hill. That is the goat that lagged behind. The stubborn ones are those.
BIBLICAL HEBREW DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE A descriptive adjective describes a characteristic or quality. It answers the question what kind? This type of adjective may be an ATTRIBUTIVE or a PREDICATE adjective. It may also function as a noun itself—a SUBSTANTIVE adjective. Descriptive adjectives may compare a noun’s attribute—a COMPARATIVE adjective— and convey the highest or lowest degree of an attribute—a SUPERLATIVE adjective. Attributive Descriptive Adjective An attributive descriptive adjective modifies a noun. In Biblical Hebrew such an adjective commonly follows the noun it modifies and agrees with the noun’s (in)definiteness, gender, and number. attributive descriptive adjective modifying K7lem0e, which is indefinite, masculine, and singular
bwO+ K7leme0 good
a good king
king
bwO+@ha K7lem0e@ha
attributive descriptive adjective modifying K7lem0@eha, which is definite, masculine, and singular
the good king
the-good the-king
lwOdg%Fha
wOm#$;
attributive descriptive adjective modifying wOm#$;, which is definite (because of the 3ms suffix), masculine, and singular
the-big name-his
twObwO+ twOklfm; good
his great name 1 Samuel 12:22
attributive descriptive adjective modifying twOklfm;, which is indefinite, feminine, and plural
queens
73
good queens
ADJECTIVE
Predicate Descriptive Adjective A predicate descriptive adjective makes a comment about a noun or pronoun. In Biblical Hebrew it stands commonly as the predicate in a VERBLESS CLAUSE (see ADJECTIVE PREDICATE, p. 151). It also occurs in a VERBAL CLAUSE with linking verbs, similarly to English, such as הָ ָיהbe. Verbless Clause When the clause in Biblical Hebrew is verbless, to convey Biblical Hebrew’s meaning, English commonly supplies a form of be or another linking verb, as we saw above. English thus expresses Hebrew’s verbless clause with a verbal one. Biblical Hebrew has no linking verb in this verbless construction. The predicate adjective in a verbless clause is often simply side by side with the subject; that is, it is JUXTAPOSED. A descriptive adjective that functions as a predicate in a verbless clause is always indefinite. The clause’s subject is definite. The basic structures/formats we encounter are these. ¾ SUBJECT (noun/pronoun) + PREDICATE (adjective), that is, S–P predicate descriptive adjective, which is indefinite, masculine, and plural, commenting on MydIlfy:ha, which is definite, masculine, and plural articular/definite subject
MydIlfy:ha
The children are weak.
weak the-children
Genesis 33:13
Myk@irA
¾ PREDICATE (adjective) + SUBJECT (noun/pronoun), that is, P–S articular/definite subject predicate descriptive adjective, which is indefinite, masculine, and singular, commenting on rbfd@Fha, which is definite, masculine, and singular
rbfd@Fha bwO+
Good is the idea. (The idea is good.)
the-idea good
1 Kings 18:24
74
ADJECTIVE
articular/definite subject predicate descriptive adjective, which is nonarticular, feminine, and singular, commenting on the construct chain’s t(arF, which is definite (because it is in construct with an articular noun), feminine, and singular
MdF)fhf t(arF hb@frA the-people evil-of
Immense is the people’s wickedness. Genesis 6:5
great
Verbal Clause Descriptive adjectives in Biblical Hebrew do occur in verbal clauses, that is, where a verb is present and an adjective is part of the predicate. The verb is commonly a form of הָ יָהto be. descriptive adjective within the predicate following a form of the verb hyFhf
Myt@i#$;lip%;
-l(a hqFzFxj hmfxfl;mi@ha
Philistines against
strong
yhit@;wA
The warfare was fierce
the-war and-it-was
against the Philistines. 1 Samuel 14:52
Substantive Descriptive Adjective Like English, a substantive descriptive adjective in Biblical Hebrew is one that functions as a noun. substantive descriptive adjective, which is here indefinite/nonarticular, masculine, and plural
ylf(f Mymiqf Myb@irA against-me
rise-up
Many rise up against me. Psalm 3:2 MT (3:1 Eng.)
many substantive descriptive adjective, which is here definite/articular, feminine, and singular
hnFbfl@;ka
hpfyF
beautiful as the moon (white one)
like-the-white(-one) beautiful
Song of Songs 6:10
75
ADJECTIVE
Comparative Descriptive Adjective A comparative descriptive adjective expresses a greater, lesser, or equal degree of a noun’s attribute. Biblical Hebrew has no special form of the adjective itself when it conveys comparison. It also has no word equivalent to English’s more or less. Biblical Hebrew has comparison of GREATER and EQUAL degree. ¾ Comparison of greater degree •
Nmi prefixes to the noun or pronoun whose attribute is surpassed. The adjective conveys the attribute. #$bad@: is the noun with the surpassed attribute adjective
#$bad:@mi qwOtmf@ -hma
What is sweeter than honey?
sweet what
Judges 14:18
from-honey
adjective
yrI)jm'
z(a
stronger than a lion Judges 14:18
from-lion strong
¾ Comparison of equal degree •
k@; is used in expressions with a descriptive adjective. predicate descriptive adjective
rdFq'
yl'h/)fk;@ . . . ynI)j hrFwOx#$;
Qedar like-tents-of . . .
I
dark
Dark am I . . . like the tents of Qedar. Song of Songs 1:5
Superlative Descriptive Adjective A superlative descriptive adjective conveys the highest or lowest degree of an attribute. Biblical Hebrew has no special form for the adjective itself when the superlative is conveyed. A variety of constructions, however, convey the superlative.
76
ADJECTIVE
¾ Superlative of highest degree •
an articular adjective or one that is definite within a construct chain N+oq@fha
the smallest/youngest [son]
the-small [one]
Genesis 42:13
wynFb@f •
N+oq;
the smallest/youngest of his sons
sons-his small-of
2 Chronicles 21:17
adjective + the preposition b@; prefixed to a plural noun My#$inF%ba@
hpfyF,ha
the most beautiful
among-the-women the-beautiful [one]
among women Song of Songs 1:8
Biblical Hebrew also conveys the superlative without the use of adjectives. It often uses the construct chain and Nmi + lk@o . Consult your grammar textbook. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE Biblical Hebrew does not formally have possessive adjectives, but nouns convey possession through pronominal suffixes added on the end of the possessed noun. ytiyrIb@; covenant-my
wOt@#$;)i wife-his
my covenant Genesis 9:9
his wife Genesis 2:25
The combinations of possessive pronominal suffixes on nouns produce a lot of variety. You should consult your grammar book. The following chart, however, cites the range of the forms of the suffixed pronouns. The chart is the same as the one for personal pronouns, with one exception. The 1st person singular form ynI is not used as a possessive pronoun.
77
ADJECTIVE
Singular 1st person
yI
w%n (common)
(common)
the person speaking
the person speaking + others
K1 (masculine)
Mke (masculine)
K7 (feminine)
Nke (feminine)
the person spoken to
the persons spoken to
w%h, h O, wO, w (masculine)
Mhe, M F (masculine)
2nd person
3rd person
Plural
hf, h@ F (feminine) the entity spoken about
Nhe, N F (feminine) the entities spoken about
Figure 21: Hebrew Possessive Suffixes
INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE Biblical Hebrew has no formal interrogative adjective. Later dialects developed one from the type of construction we see in 2 Kings 3:8. hle(jnA K7rEd0e@ha hze
-y)'
Which road shall we ascend?
we-shall-go-up the-road this where (= where is this, the road we shall ascend?)
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE We categorize demonstrative adjectives in Biblical Hebrew, like English, according to whether they are NEAR (at hand) or REMOTE (farther away) and SINGULAR or PLURAL. Gender is distinguished, unlike English. Near
Remote
Singular
hze (masculine)
)w%h (masculine)
t)zo, wOz, hzo (feminine)
)yhi (feminine)
Plural
hl@e)'0, l)' (common)
hm@fh'0, Mh' (masculine) hn%Fh'0 (feminine)
Figure 22: Hebrew Demonstrative Adjectives
The remote demonstrative adjectives are actually the third-person independent pronouns (see SUBJECT PERSONAL PRONOUN, p. 57). Those pronouns take on the additional function of a remote demonstrative adjective. 78
ADJECTIVE
Biblical Hebrew also makes a clear distinction between demonstrative adjectives and demonstrative pronouns (see DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN, p. 61). ¾ Demonstrative adjectives follow an articular noun and are themselves articular. hz@eha #$y)ihf
this man
the-this the-man
t)zo@ha
h#$%f)ihf
this woman
the-this the-woman
hl@e)0'hf My#$inF)jhf the-these
hl@e)'0hf
these men
the-men
My#$in%Fha
these women
the-these the-women
¾ Demonstrative pronouns replace a noun and thus do not modify one. #$y)ihf hze
This is the man.
the-man this
h#$%f)ihf t)zo the-woman
This is the woman.
this
79
ADVERB
ADVERB An ADVERB is commonly a word that modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs convey such concepts as time, place, quantity, manner, and intensity. Ezra builds well. adverb verb
Hazor is very large. adjective adverb
Ahab ruled too harshly. adverb adverb
An ADVERB or ADVERBIAL can also refer to all components of language connected to the verb. This is a broad use of the term, and usually ADVERBIAL is the preferred label for this wide use. I explore this in detail under the chapter PREDICATE/PREDICATION, particularly under VERBAL PREDICATION, p. 157.
ENGLISH Here are a few of many semantic categories. ¾ Adverbs of TIME address the issue of when? The orphans arrived early. The Midianite caravan started late. ¾ Adverbs of PLACE address the issue of where? The orphans were left behind. Lot looked around.
80
ADVERB
¾ Adverbs of QUANTITY address the issue of how much? or how well? The top of Mt. Hermon is very cold. Sarah eats little. ¾ Adverbs of MANNER address the issue of how? They walked along the path carefully. The daughters of Jerusalem danced beautifully. ¾ Adverbs of INTENSITY address emphasis Solomon was a really wise king. Jonathan did not actually hate Saul, his father. ¾ Adverbs of CAUSE or PURPOSE address the issue of why? what for? I will therefore refuse to pay Sennacherib! Some adverbs in English are precisely the same form as their adjective counterpart. Remember that adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, while adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Adverb Adjective The chariot drove fast.
The fast charioteer won the battle.
I only drink water from the Jordan.
Jerusalem was the only city left standing.
They work hard.
That was hard work.
BIBLICAL HEBREW Here are a few of many semantic categories. ¾ Adverbs of TIME address the issue of when? derived from MwOy day
MmfwOy
Mheyl'(j hwhy
by-day over-them
YHWH
NnA(jwA
The cloud of YHWH was
and-cloud-of
over them by day. Numbers 10:34
81
ADVERB
¾ Adverbs of PLACE address the issue of where? MdF)fhf-t)e
M#$f
DO-the-man
M#&ey,F2wA
He placed the man there.
there and-he-placed
Genesis 2:8
¾ Adverbs of QUANTITY address the issue of how much? or how well? הַ ְשׁ ִקינִ י־ ָנא ְמעַ ט־ ֫ ַמיִ ם ִמכַּ ֵדְּך from-jar-your water little-of
Please let me drink a little water from your jar.
give-me
Genesis 24:43
¾ Adverbs of MANNER address the issue of how? adjective used as an adverb; remember that English has the same phenomenon
Nw%yk@fb;yI
rma MwOl#$f
they-cry bitter
yk')jl;ma
Ambassadors of peace
peace messengers-of
are weeping bitterly. Isaiah 33:7
¾ Adverbs of INTENSITY address emphasis ט ב ְמ ֹאד very
וְ ִהנֵּה־
And [what he created] was very good.
good and-behold
Genesis 1:31
¾ Adverbs of CAUSE or PURPOSE address the issue of why? what for? יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל
אמֹר ִל ְב ֵני־ ֱ
Israel to-sons-of
לָ כֵ ן
Therefore say to the Israelites.
say therefore
Exodus 6:6
We also commonly talk about adverbs in Biblical Hebrew being primitive, derived, or other parts of speech. ¾ Primitive adverbs hkf)lfm;-lkf
h#&e(jta-)lo
You must not/never do any work.
work any you-will-do not
Exodus 20:10
MdF)fhf-t)e DO-the-man
M#$f
M#&ey,F2wA
He placed the man there.
there and-he-placed
Genesis 2:8
82
ADVERB
¾ Derived adverbs derived from Nme)o faithfulness
dl')' MnFm;)u I-can-give birth
verily
P)aha
How can I surely give
INTERROGATIVE-also
birth to a child? Genesis 18:13
derived from MwOy day
MmfwOy
Mheyl'(j hwhy
by-day over-them
YHWH
NnA(jwA
The cloud of YHWH was
and-cloud-of
over them by day. Numbers 10:34
¾ Other parts of speech used as adverbs substantive meaning “unitedness” used as an adverb
dxayF2
w%ps;)fy,"wA
They assembled together.
together and-they-were-assembled
2 Samuel 10:15
adjective used as an adverb; remember that English has the same phenomenon
Nw%yk@fb;yI
rma MwOl#$f
they-cry bitter
yk')jl;ma
Ambassadors of peace
peace messengers-of
are weeping bitterly. Isaiah 33:7
infinitives absolute used as adverbs
br"(jhaw:
Mk@'#$;ha
yt@i#$;lip%;ha
#$g%Ay,IwA
The Philistine
and-do-evening do-early-morning the-Philistine and-he-neared
approached every morning and evening. 1 Samuel 17:16
83
ADVERB
BROAD USE OF THE TERM ADVERBIAL I mentioned above that the term ADVERBIAL could refer to any component of language connected to the verb. Dividing adverbials into two main categories is helpful: (1) ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENTS and (2) ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS/MODIFIERS. I discuss this in detail under the section VERBAL PREDICATION (see p. 157) in the chapter PREDICATE/PREDICATION.
84
PARTICIPLE
PARTICIPLE A PARTICIPLE is a word form that participates in the world of the verb and the world of the nominal. It can function as a verb and as an adjective.
ENGLISH The participle in English has ¾ tense: present or past (see TENSE, p. 102); ¾ voice: active or passive (see VOICE, p. 135). The PRESENT PARTICIPLE ends in -ing: eating, riding, writing. The PAST PARTICIPLE is the form we use after She has: She has eaten, ridden, written. We form the past participle usually by adding -ed, -d, -t, or -en to the dictionary form of the verb. Participles have two main functions in English: (1) VERBAL PARTICIPLES (TO CREATE TENSE) and (2) ADJECTIVAL PARTICIPLES. VERBAL PARTICIPLE Used in combination with an auxiliary verb, participles form several tenses (see the discussion of TENSE for English, p. 102). Present Participle Baruch is writing a report. = absolute present progressive present participle active voice auxiliary: to be
Baruch was writing a report. = absolute past progressive present participle active voice auxiliary: to be
85
PARTICIPLE
Baruch has been writing a report. = present perfect progressive present participle active voice auxiliary: to have + to be
Past Participle With the auxiliary verb to have, the past participle forms tense. With the auxiliary verb to be, the past participle assists in conveying the passive voice. Baruch has written a report. = present perfect (active voice) past participle active voice auxiliary: to have
Baruch had written a report. = past perfect / pluperfect (active voice) past participle active voice auxiliary: to have
A report was written by Baruch. = passive voice past participle passive voice auxiliary: to be
ADJECTIVAL PARTICIPLE Functioning as adjectives, participles ¾ occur as a single word modifying a nominal or ¾ initiate a participial phrase that modifies a nominal. Single Word In this function, the participle behaves very much in the world of the nominal with little view toward a verbal process (in comparison with situations where it begins a participial phrase). This function in English is akin to what is commonly called the ADJECTIVAL PARTICIPLE in Biblical Hebrew (see p. 89). Attributive Adjective A word is modified by a participle functioning as an adjective.
86
PARTICIPLE
Isaiah was an amazing prophet. present participle active voice modifies prophet
The broken pot was a nicely burnished piece. past participle passive voice modifies piece
past participle passive voice modifies pot
Predicate Adjective A participle functioning as an adjective makes a comment on a word with the help of a linking verb. Isaiah was amazing. present participle active voice makes a comment about Isaiah linking verb
Substantive Adjective A participle functions as a noun/substantive. The amazed left Sinai. past participle active voice functioning as a noun
Participial Phrase The participial phrase modifies a nominal outside the phrase. In this function, the participle behaves very much in the world of the verb. The phrase usually conveys a verbal process. Gleaning the field, Ruth saw Boaz. participial phrase modifies the subject of the main clause, Ruth present participle active voice
87
PARTICIPLE
Look at the pickmen tunneling through the tunnel. participial phrase modifies the object of the preposition, pickmen
present participle active voice
Filled with contempt, the priests tried to light the altars in front of Elijah. past participle passive voice
participial phrase modifies the subject of the main clause, priests
He noticed the words written on the wall. participial phrase modifies the direct object, words
past participle passive voice
BIBLICAL HEBREW The participle in Biblical Hebrew has voice: active, middle, reflexive, and passive (see VOICE, p. 135). Unlike English, however, Biblical Hebrew does not have tense. Technically, only in the Qal Stem can we talk about active and passive participles. The middle and reflexive derived stems in Biblical Hebrew (Nifal, Hitpael) have participles that convey the middle and reflexive, of course, but they do not have active participles. And the same goes for the passive derived stems in Biblical Hebrew (Nifal, Pual, Hofal), having participles that convey the passive. These are simply a Nifal, a Pual, a Hofal, or a Hitpael participle. We shall focus primarily on the Qal Stem. The participle focuses more on the participant related to the verbal process associated with the participle. This, in part, explains why a participle inflects for the number and gender of words to which it is closely connected. The other nonfinite verb form (see FINITE AND NONFINITE, p. 99) in Biblical Hebrew, the INFINITIVE (p. 93), focuses more on the process and thus rarely is marked for number and gender—possessive suffixes being the only indicator of number and gender related to the infinitive’s verbal process. The Qal Stem has the following participles.
88
PARTICIPLE
¾ Active •
Fientive (ms l+'qo, the qÆtÇl pattern) (for fientive see FIENTIVE AND STATIVE, p. 100)
•
Stative (ms l+'qf)
¾ Passive (ms lw%+qf) The participle in Biblical Hebrew may function as (1) an ADJECTIVAL PARTICIPLE, (2) a RELATIVE PARTICIPLE, or (3) a VERBAL PARTICIPLE. ADJECTIVAL PARTICIPLE Similarly to English, Biblical Hebrew participles have three common adjectival functions. Attributive Adjective A word is modified by a participle functioning as an adjective. The participle commonly follows the noun it modifies and agrees with the noun’s (in)definiteness, gender, and number. Qal active fientive participle modifying #$)', which is indefinite/nonarticular, feminine, and singular
)w%h
hlfk;)o
#$)'
K1yh0elo)v hwhy yk@i
he eating(fs) fire(fs) God-your
YHWH
for
As for YHWH your God, a consuming fire is he. Deuteronomy 4:24
Qal passive participle modifying +p%f#$;mi, which is indefinite/nonarticular, masculine, and singular
bw%tkf@
+p%f#$;mi
Mheb@f twO#&(jla . . .
written(ms) judgment(ms) on-them
to-do
. . . to execute on them (the) written judgment Psalm 149:9
Predicate Adjective The passive participle (not the active participle) may function in the same way as a predicate adjective. The passive participle used as a predicate adjective conveys a state of being, not fientivity (activity or dynamism). (If fientivity is conveyed in the passive participle, the participle is then functioning as a predicate, that is, as a 89
PARTICIPLE
predicator; see VERBAL PARTICIPLE, p. 91.) The predicate adjective function of the passive participle agrees with the subject in gender and number and is simply side-by-side with the subject; that is, it is juxtaposed. The participle is indefinite, while the clause’s subject is definite. Qal passive participle, which is indefinite/nonarticular, feminine, and plural, commenting on the construct chain’s yr"(f, which is definite (because it is in construct with a geographical name), feminine, and plural
r('ro(j
yr"(f twObzu(j
Aroer cities-of
Deserted are the cities of Aroer. Isaiah 17:2
deserted
The example is describing a state of being: the cities lie in a deserted state. Substantive Adjective The participle functions as a noun/substantive. Qal active fientive
K1l;
-Nt@et@i
MyrI+;#$ow: My+ip;#$o
for-you you-shall-appoint and-officials
judges
Judges and officials you shall appoint. Deuteronomy 16:18
Qal active stative
Nq'zF
yn'p%;
t@f0r:dAhfw:
You shall honor the aged.
old-one faces-of and-you-shall-honor
Leviticus 19:32
Qal passive
bw%tk@fk@a tk@osu t#&(jla as-the-written-thing
huts to-make
[Gather a variety of branches in order] to make huts, according to the regulation. Nehemiah 8:15
Piel
ydAm@;lam; -lk@fmi
More than all my teachers I have insight.
I-have-insight teachers-my from-all
Psalm 119:99
yt@il;k0@a#&;hi
90
PARTICIPLE
RELATIVE PARTICIPLE The participle can function as the equivalent of a relative clause. This relative participle is commonly articular (see ARTICULAR NOMINALS, p. 35). Qal active fientive participle, which is articular/definite, feminine, and plural
h#&f(f r#$e)j-lkf@ t)' he-did
that all
DO
t)orohf
K1yne2y('
the-ones-which-saw eyes-your
Your eyes are the ones that saw all he did. Deuteronomy 3:21
Qal passive participle, which is articular/definite, masculine, and singular
yw%nbf@ha xAb@'z:mi@ha -l(a the-built
the-altar
upon the altar that had been built
on
Judges 6:28
VERBAL PARTICIPLE Participles convey a verbal process even when they are functioning primarily as adjectives. Compare, for example, these two phrases: (1) the red book; (2) the written book. The first uses a true attributive descriptive adjective; the second, an attributive adjectival participle. Notice how the participle written conveys a verbal process (‘write’) that red simply does not have. In the VERBAL PARTICIPLE the verbal process of a participle is particularly salient, more so than in the adjective participle. A verbal participle conveys a verbal process usually within a verbless clause. Though a verbal participle in Biblical Hebrew seems to approximate the function of a finite verb, a clause with a verbal participle is nevertheless considered verbless, because we reserve the notion of a verbal clause as one with a finite verbal form. This use of the participle does not formally convey aspect/tense and mood, which is what a finite verb, by definition, does. The finite verbal forms in the context surrounding a verbal participle inform us of where to root the participle in terms of aspect/time and mood.
91
PARTICIPLE Qal active fientive participle, functioning like a verb in this clause
txarA0b@o ykinO)f flee
yt%ir:big%: yrA#&f
yn"p%;mi
From the presence of Sarah,
I mistress-my Sarai from-faces-of
my mistress, I am fleeing. Genesis 16:8
Qal passive participle, functioning like a verb in this clause; it conveys a fientive verbal process, not a state of being, which, in part, is why this is a verbal participle and not an adjectival one.
K1ybe0y:)ol; twOntun:
K1n:)co
Your flock will be given to your enemies.
to-enemies-your is-given flock-your
Deuteronomy 28:31
The last example may have you asking yourself how a passive participle’s function as a predicate adjective is different from its function as a predicate or verb. The distinction is that the former conveys a state of being or a result. The latter conveys a fientivity (activity, dynamism) in the passive voice, precisely what this last example expresses.
92
INFINITIVE
INFINITIVE An INFINITIVE is a verbal noun (part verb, part noun) and a nonfinite verb form (for a definition see FINITE AND NONFINITE, p. 99). It focuses on the process involved with the verb. In many languages, the infinitive is the base or dictionary form.
ENGLISH The infinitive is the dictionary form of the verb: walk, see, read, etc. The infinitive is often used along with the main verb. We commonly attach to to the infinitive. An infinitive, as part verb, conveys a verbal process. As part noun, it can fill most any syntactic slot in a clause (subject, adverbial, etc.). An infinitive or infinitive clause can, for example, be the following. ¾ SUBJECT of a larger clause infinitive clause as subject of the sentence
To walk up Sinai is a challenge. main verb to + infinitive
¾ PREDICATE (NOMINATIVE) of a clause with the verb be to + infinitive; infinitive clause as predicate nominative of the sentence
To eat is to live. main verb to + infinitive (also infinitive clause as subject of the sentence)
93
INFINITIVE
¾ ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT (for a definition, see p. 158), that is, a completement of a larger verbal clause infinitive clause as adverbial complement of the sentence
Boaz wants to marry Ruth. to + infinitive main verb
¾ ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT/MODIFIER (for a definition, see p. 162), that is, a component that offers purpose, result, time, explanation, etc., of a larger verbal clause infinitive clause to express purpose within the sentence
Boaz came to marry Ruth. to + infinitive main verb
With some verbs, like let and must, we use the infinitive without to. Elimelech must do his chores. main verb
infinitive
BIBLICAL HEBREW The infinitive, a nonfinite verbal form, is not the base or dictionary form in Biblical Hebrew. It is a specially marked form. Hebrew, in fact, has two types of infinitives, with separate forms: (1) INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE and (2) INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT. The other nonfinite verb form, the PARTICIPLE, focuses more on the participant related to the verb. This, in part, explains why participles inflect for number and gender. Infinitives, which focus more on the verb process, are rarely so marked. The suffixes added solely to infinitives construct are the only indicators of gender and number associated with the verbal process.
94
INFINITIVE
INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE The infinitive absolute (IA) has several functions, but primary among them are the following. ¾ The IA most commonly functions as an ADVERB when it occurs with a finite verbal form, the two of them sharing the same root and generally the same stem or binyan. This use of the IA conveys MODAL attitudes such as AFFIRMATION (indeed, surely), PERMISSION (may), OBLIGATION (should), CAPABILITY (can), DELIBERATION (should), etc. יהוה אֱֹלהֵ יכֶ ם God-your
ת־מ ְצוֹת ִ ֶא
YHWH DO-commands-of
שָׁ מוֹר ִתּ ְשׁ ְמרוּןCertainly/Carefully keep you-will-keep
keep
YHWH your God’s
commandments. Deuteronomy 6:17
¾ The IA sometimes takes the place of a finite verbal form, especially the imperative. אֶ ת־יוֹם הַ שַּׁ בָּ ת the-sabbath
DO-day-of
זָכוֹר
Remember the Sabbath.
remember
Exodus 20:8
INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT Let’s first separate out a couple characteristics of the infinitive construct (IC) not shared by the infinitive absolute (IA). ¾ The IC often is governed by a preposition. ¾ The IC regularly takes pronominal suffixes. As in English, an IC, as part verb, conveys a verbal process. As part noun, it can fill most any syntactic slot in a clause (subject, adverbial, etc.). An IC or IC clause can, for example, be the following.
95
INFINITIVE
¾ SUBJECT of a larger clause infinitive clause as subject of the sentence, which is verbless and P–S preposition + IC predicate descriptive adjective
טוֹב ְלהֹדוֹת לַ יהוה to-YHWH to-praise
To praise YHWH is good.
good
Psalm 92:2 MT (92:1 Eng.)
¾ ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT (for a definition, see p. 158), that is, a completement of a larger clause infinitive clause (preposition + IC) as object of the sentence main verb
ְל ִה ְתנַחֵ ם
וַיְ מָ אֵ ן
He refused to be consoled.
to-be-comforted and-he-refused
Genesis 37:35
¾ ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT/MODIFIER (for a definition, see p. 162), that is, a component that offers purpose, result, time, explanation, etc., of a larger clause infinitive clause to express purpose within the sentence preposition + IC subject main verb
שָׁ אוּל ְלבַ קֵּ שׁ אֶ ת־נ ְַפשׁוֹ DO-life-his
to-seek
יָצָ א
Saul went out
Saul he-went-out
(in order) to take his life. 1 Samuel 23:15
infinitive clause (preposition + IC + pronominal suffix) to express temporal information within the sentence
ֹלשׁים שָׁ נָה ָדּוִ ד ְבּמָ ְלכוֹ ִ ְשׁ in-reigning-his David year
בֶּ ן־
thirty son-of
David was thirty years old when he became king. 2 Samuel 5:4
96
GERUND
GERUND A GERUND is a verbal noun (part verb, part noun) that functions as a noun in a clause.
ENGLISH English forms gerunds by adding -ing to verbs. A gerund functions in a clause virtually in any way that a noun can. It can be the subject or an adverbial. A gerund has the same form as a present participle (see under PARTICIPLE, p. 85). You must therefore be careful not to confuse the two: ¾ A word ending in -ing is a gerund if you are able to form a question by replacing that word with the interrogative what. A gerund answers the question. Cooking can be fun. a noun from the verb cook subject of the clause
What can be fun? Cooking = gerund Lot often thought about moving. a noun from the verb move object of the preposition about in the predicate
Lot often thought about what? Moving = gerund ¾ A word ending in -ing is a present participle if it fails the “gerund test.” If you are forced to form a question by replacing the -ing word with more than one word or you must use a form of the verb do, the word is a present participle. Shepherding near Bethlehem, David fought a lion. present participle active voice
What was David doing near Bethlehem? Shepherding = present participle
97
GERUND
BIBLICAL HEBREW Biblical Hebrew has no gerund. The language’s INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT and INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE, however, sometimes function as gerunds (see INFINITIVE, p. 93). The English translation of a Biblical Hebrew infinitive used as a gerund will not always meet the “gerund test.” An infinitive is functioning as a gerund if it ¾ is NOT functioning as the SUBJECT of a sentence (see English example under INFINITIVE, p. 93); ¾ is NOT functioning as the (DIRECT OBJECT) ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT of a sentence (see English example under INFINITIVE, p. 94); ¾ is NOT expressing purpose or result as an ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT/MODIFIER (see English example under INFINITIVE, p. 94); but ¾ IS expressing another ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT/MODIFIER circumstance or motive.12 l; + Piel infinitive construct + 3ms suffix
wO#$d@:qal; to-sanctify-him
tb@f#$%aha MwOy-t)e rwOm#$f the-Sabbath
DO-day-of
keep
Keep the Sabbath by sanctifying it! Deuteronomy 5:12
12
For more detail, see Cynthia L. Miller, The Representation of Speech in Biblical Hebrew Narrative: A Linguistic Analysis (Harvard Semitic Museum Monographs 55; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996), 175–85.
98
VERB
VERB A VERB is a word that conveys a process, whether full of action or static (for example, seem or be). In the chapter SEMANTICS: PROCESSES, ROLES, AND CIRCUMSTANCES, we talk about three primary spheres of verbal processes: the material = doing, the mental = sensing, and the relational. See that discussion, p. 166. Here are some basic concepts closely associated with verbs.
FINITE AND NONFINITE A verb is considered FINITE if it can occur on its own in an independent or main clause and conveys person, aspect/tense, and mood. In Biblical Hebrew the finite verbal forms are those that are not infinitives or participles. A verb is considered NONFINITE if it cannot occur on its own in an independent or main clause and does not convey person, aspect/tense, and mood. In Biblical Hebrew the infinitives and participles are nonfinite verbal forms.
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE A TRANSITIVE verb governs an ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT (see p. 158), that is, a complete-ment of a verbal process; it is integral to the verbal process when in a clause. More commonly we call this a DIRECT OBJECT. The woman runs the business. adverbial complement, a complete-ment of the verbal process run transitive fientive verb
An INTRANSITIVE verb does not govern an adverbial complement. Rather, it governs (1) nothing or (2) an ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT/MODIFIER (see p. 162), that is, a component that offers purpose, result, time, explanation, etc., related to the verbal process. The bees swarm. no adverbial complement intransitive fientive verb
99
VERB
The woman runs for fun. adverbial adjunct/modifier, not a complete-ment of the verbal process run, but modifying the process here by offering explanation or purpose intransitive fientive verb
FIENTIVE AND STATIVE A FIENTIVE verb conveys activity or a dynamic situation. The verb may be transitive. The woman runs the business. adverbial complement, a complete-ment of the verbal process run transitive fientive verb
Or it may be intransitive. The bees swarm. no adverbial complement intransitive fientive verb
The woman runs for fun. adverbial adjunct/modifier, not a complete-ment of the verbal process run, but modifying the process here by offering explanation or purpose intransitive fientive verb
Fientive contrasts with stative. A STATIVE verb denotes a state, a circumstance, or quality. Most statives are intransitive. Eglon is heavy. Some, however, are transitive.
100
VERB
stative verb adverbial complement
yti)n2"#&f
w#&f('-t)ew:
But Esau I hate.
I-hate
and-DO-Esau
Malachi 1:3
In the example above, )n"#&f is stative in form but clearly takes an adverbial complement, a direct object. Stative contrasts with fientive.
101
TENSE AND ASPECT
TENSE AND ASPECT Understanding TENSE and ASPECT is fundamental to understanding the Hebrew verbal system. English speakers are comfortable talking about their language from a perspective of tense: present tense, past tense, etc. ASPECT is a concept not very familiar to English speakers. Ironically, though, English has numerous constructions that convey it. In fact, aspect is to some extent fused with the English verbal system. Grammarians of Biblical Hebrew debate, at times quite vigorously, the respective roles that tense and aspect play within the language. The view here is that aspect plays the most fundamental role in the Biblical Hebrew verbal system. We therefore need to understand tense and especially aspect.
ENGLISH TENSE TENSE denotes when the process of a verb takes place. We can talk about ABSOLUTE and RELATIVE tense. Absolute Tense Absolute tense relates the TIME of a situation from the speaker’s PRESENT. English has three major absolute tenses: PAST, PRESENT, and FUTURE. Each of these has subcategories, which we shall explore. The illustration below can help us to conceptualize the absolute tenses. Each circle represents a situation, and the vertical line represents the moment of speaking or writing.
102
TENSE AND ASPECT
PAST
PRESENT
FUTURE
David ate barley.
David eats barley.
David will eat barley.
Absolute Past
Absolute Present
Absolute Future
Locates a situation temporally as prior to the moment of speaking
Locates a situation temporally as simultaneous with the moment of speaking
Locates a situation temporally as subsequent to the moment of speaking
Figure 23: English Absolute Tense
To each of these we can add the notion of PROGRESSION: a situation, relative to the moment of speaking, is viewed as being in progress. A type of aspect, to which we shall soon turn, is conveyed in English through progression. ¾ Absolute Past Progressive: David was eating barley. ¾ Absolute Present Progressive: David is eating barley. ¾ Absolute Future Progressive: David will be eating barley. Relative Tense Relative tense relates the TIME of a situation to the TIME OF ANOTHER SITUATION. Conceptualize the situation of walking down the road.
Walking down the road
103
TENSE AND ASPECT
¾ Relative Past Tense: When walking down the road, David ate barley. ¾ Relative Present Tense: When walking down the road, David eats barley. ¾ Relative Future Tense: When walking down the road, David will eat barley. ASPECT ASPECT is a concept not very familiar to English speakers, but, as I said above, the language has numerous constructions that convey it (progression, for example). Aspect is the view on the internal structure of a situation (most any circumstance you can envision can be thought of as a situation). The categories of aspect I discuss below are the PERFECTIVE, IMPERFECTIVE, and RESULTATIVE/STATIVE (better known as the “perfect” in English grammars). (We could talk of other categories.) Whereas the first two, perfective and imperfective, are, without doubt, categories of aspect, many debate whether the resultative/stative should be a category of aspect. It is somewhat different, as we shall see, from the first two. In brief, the resultative/stative usually focuses on a continuing relevance of a past situation. I follow those who believe the resultative/stative best belongs with aspect. English does not have a special form of the verb to distinguish tense from aspect. Some languages—Slavic ones, for example—do have special forms. Many linguists who study Biblical Hebrew believe that aspect plays a fundamental role in the Hebrew verbal system. In English we’ll try to understand aspect by exploring the meanings our many different so-called tenses are trying to convey. Perfective Aspect (Perfectivity) The perfective aspect, or perfectivity, views a situation from the outside, as whole and complete. Think of the situation of Mivtachyah having read a scroll yesterday and conceptualize it as a sphere.
Situation: The reading of the scroll by Mivtachyah yesterday
104
TENSE AND ASPECT
Express the situation in English as the sentence “Mivtachyah read the scroll yesterday.” The sentence, when viewed from the standpoint of PERFECTIVE ASPECT, expresses the totality of the situation, without dividing up its internal temporal structure. The whole situation is presented as an undivided whole. The beginning, middle, and end are rolled up into one. To help understand this, think of the many things Mivtachyah could have done yesterday related to reading the scroll: walking to and from her home, eating lunch, answering the door, etc. The perfective aspect is not concerned with any of that—it makes no attempt to divide the situation into various phases. Now think of the situation of Mivtachyah reading the scroll tomorrow. Again, think of that situation as a sphere.
Situation: The reading of the scroll by Mivtachyah tomorrow
The English expression “Mivtachyah will read the scroll tomorrow,” when viewed from the standpoint of PERFECTIVE ASPECT, still expresses the totality of the situation, without dividing up its internal temporal structure, even though the situation has not yet occurred. The whole situation is still presented as an undivided whole. English speakers, when we read such sentences, most likely see them from a standpoint of TENSE. Indeed, they can be viewed from the perspective of tense: one situation is oriented temporally prior to the present; the other, temporally anterior. Aspect, however, is another way to view a situation. The perfective aspect sees a situation as whole without considering how it relates in time to the present. It looks at a situation, further, without specifying how component parts of the situation (for example, reading a scroll at different times through the day, going to lunch, etc.) relate within the whole situation.
105
TENSE AND ASPECT
Here are more examples of what perfectivity entails: ¾ Single or momentary situations I repaired the wall. He will write the message on the ostracon and send it to Azeqah. ¾ Situations that have a goal of completion Did you finish repairing the wall? Will she memorize the paradigm? What did you do yesterday? (what was accomplished?) — I sacrificed a ram. (whole situation) — And I worked in the garden. (whole situation) What will you do tomorrow? (what will be accomplished?) — I shall sacrifice a ram. (whole situation) — And I shall work in the garden. (whole situation) Again, English speakers will automatically see these sentences expressing past and future tense. From the view of perfective aspect, however, they are situations viewed as a whole. Imperfective Aspect (Imperfectivity) The imperfective aspect, or imperfectivity, views a situation’s insides. It considers the internal temporal structure of a situation. Think again of our situation of Mivtachyah reading the scroll.
Situation: The reading of the scroll by Mivtachyah
Consider the following sentences linked to our situation: 1. Mivtachyah read the scroll yesterday. 2. While she was reading it, one of her tenants arrived.
106
TENSE AND ASPECT
In English, again, we can view the sentences from a perspective of either tense or aspect. From an ASPECTUAL perspective, sentence 1 is perfective: the situation is viewed from the outside and is whole, complete. Sentence 2, however, opens up the situation and says that at some time during the situation of Mivtachyah reading her scroll, one of her tenants arrived. From a perspective of TENSE, sentence 1 is absolute past tense. The first (and subordinate) clause in sentence 2 is absolute past progressive, while the second (and main clause) is relative past. Here are more examples of what imperfectivity entails: ¾ Repeated or habitual situations I studied Biblical Hebrew every day. He will never repair the wall. She would bake the flat bread every morning. ¾ Situations in progress (thus not complete) (notice the idea of progression, which English can commonly convey) They were working when he entered. They will be working when he enters. ¾ Completed situations without a view to result What did you do yesterday? (what activity took place?) — I sacrificed a ram. (view on activity) — And I worked in the garden. (view on activity) Compare this last example with the next-to-last example in the perfective-aspect section. The sentences are identical. They can be viewed quite differently, however, from an aspectual perspective. Perfect “Aspect” = Resultative/Stative The RESULTATIVE/STATIVE presents a view of a STATE that is usually the result of a PRECEDING SITUATION. English speakers know it better as the “perfect.” Here is a way to conceptualize it.
107
TENSE AND ASPECT
SITUATION
STATE Figure 24: The Resultative/Stative
Stated a bit more precisely, the resultative/stative expresses (1) a state resulting from a prior situation and (2) in English, the time of the prior situation. Not everyone agrees whether the resultative/stative in English is best regarded as a tense, aspect, or something else. Here we classify it as an aspect, in part because it involves the perfective aspect. The situation in the resultative/stative is represented through the perfective aspect. In addition to incorporating perfectivity to represent a situation, however, the resultative/stative expresses a state resulting from that situation. In English, we commonly combine the resultative/stative with time. This sets the stage for different types of resultative/statives related to time. (We shall use the label perfect, used commonly in English grammars.) ¾ Past Perfect / Pluperfect: David had eaten. The past perfect expresses a PAST abiding STATE relating to a PRIOR SITUATION. The situation of eating is complete (perfective) and has been accomplished in the past, and the state of having eaten continued for a time prior to the moment of speaking.
Eating
PRESENT Figure 25: English Past Perfect / Pluperfect
108
TENSE AND ASPECT
¾ Present Perfect: David has eaten. The present perfect expresses a PRESENT abiding STATE from a PRIOR SITUATION. The situation of eating is complete (perfective) and has been accomplished in the past, while the state of having eaten continues to the moment of speaking.
Eating
PRESENT Figure 26: English Present Perfect
¾ Future Perfect: David will have eaten. The future perfect expresses a FUTURE abiding STATE relating to a PRIOR SITUATION. The situation of eating will be complete (perfective) and will be accomplished in the future, and the state of having eaten will continue for a time subsequent to the moment of speaking.
PRESENT
Eating
Figure 27: English Future Perfect
To each of these we can add the notion of PROGRESSION. ¾ Past Perfect / Pluperfect Progressive: David had been eating. ¾ Present Perfect Progressive: David has been eating. ¾ Future Perfect Progressive: David will have been eating.
109
TENSE AND ASPECT
AKTIONSART You may encounter in your grammar or secondary readings the German word Aktionsart (literally, “action-type”). Some grammars simply use the English phrase “kind of action.” We do not find agreement among linguists on the relationship of Aktionsart to aspect. Linguists do agree that verbal processes can convey concepts such as habit/custom (“she would [customarily] fast once a week”), iterativity (= repeated process, “she jumped several times”), voice (active, middle, reflexive, or passive [see VOICE, p. 135]), stativity or fientivity (see under VERB, p. 100), etc. Some bundle all of the above as categories of ASPECT. Others bundle all of the above as categories of AKTIONSART. Yet others tie together habit/custom and iterativity and add punctuality/momentariness (describing a brief verbal process in its entirety) and inception (describing the beginning of a verbal process) as categories of ASPECT but group voice, stativity/fientivity, and transitivity as categories of AKTIONSART. As you read grammars and other linguistic helps, you will need to decipher how an author is using “aspect” and “Aktionsart.” You may also perhaps bemoan why we who write about languages cannot agree on what seem to be basics and that we do not write more clearly, try as we might.
BIBLICAL HEBREW Does the Biblical Hebrew verbal system primarily convey tense or aspect? The issue is not unimportant. Let’s try to understand some of the principal points. The debate focuses on the REAL or INDICATIVE MOOD (see the sections on REAL MOOD = INDICATIVE MOOD, p. 116). We find general agreement that time/tense is not an issue in the IRREAL moods (volitional, “modals,” etc.; see IRREAL MOOD, p. 117). Most grammarians agree that discourse (a “chunk” of text; see p. 6) that contains indicative-mood finite verbs can commonly convey time, that is, convey when a verbal process takes place. The disagreement centers around whether the indicative verb forms themselves convey tense or whether a verbal process is tethered to time secondarily by other elements in the discourse, such as adverbs of time.
110
TENSE AND ASPECT
Finding a way forward through the debate is not easy. Some of the finest minds in the discipline, after all, do not agree with each other. Here are two complicating factors. ¾ Language changes through time. What is true for a language in a given moment in time is not necessarily true of its past or of what will be its future. (Have you read Beowulf in Old English recently, or Chaucer’s Middle English Canterbury Tales?) The scribal activity that wrote, compiled, and edited the Hebrew Bible was itself a several-centuries-long process (from the decades leading up to Jerusalem’s destruction in 586 B.C.E. to several centuries after), and it seemingly incorporated material here and there that preserved the language from centuries past (Exodus 15 and Judges 5, for example). ¾ Verbal processes themselves vary greatly. A major semantic distinction is between (1) fientive/dynamic verbs, conveying activity, and (2) stative verbs, describing state of being. Stative verbs, by definition, convey durative and positional processes ( הָ יָהbe). Not being aware of this semantic distinction can confuse our notions of verbal processes. Imperfective aspect sees verbal processes, in part, as progressions, durations—already what stative verbs convey without being cast into an imperfective aspect. What, furthermore, are the roles of perfective aspect for stative verbs? We shall nevertheless suggest that tense is not a concept fundamentally linked to the Biblical Hebrew verb forms themselves, with one common exception, which we shall consider below under TENSE. With that exception, the verbal system itself is, in all moods, fundamentally an aspectual system. That Biblical Hebrew verb forms themselves more fundamentally convey aspect does not mean, however, that Biblical Hebrew cannot tell time! In all moods, if the time of a situation is to be conveyed, the verbal form in conjunction with other elements in the discourse roots the situation in time. Temporal information is conveyed primarily through the discourse around a verb in question. It is quite easy, though, to understand why we can be tempted to see the Biblical Hebrew verbal system as fundamentally tense oriented. Take the Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation (without a conjunction vav). Commonly we see the Suffix in textual
111
TENSE AND ASPECT
environments that convey situations in past time. Past tense, right? Well, likely no. Writers of Biblical Hebrew, rather, seem to have considered the Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation, which conveys PERFECTIVITY, a whole or complete situation, as compatible for routinely conveying a complete situation in the past. And take the Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation (without a conjunction vav). The Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation’s IMPERFECTIVITY, the insides of or the in-progress-ness of a situation, lent itself to convey situations in the present and future. This, however, is not tense at work. The big picture is that the Suffix and Prefix Conjugations can refer to situations rooted in time to the past and present and future. These two conjugations express aspect in different temporal situations. TENSE One verbal form, in and of itself, conveys PAST TENSE: the vayyiqtol or so-called PAST-TIME NARRATIVE, the vav + pataḥ + doubling of the prefix consonant of the Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation: קד ֹ וַיִּ ְפ/וַיִּ ְקטֹ ל. Depending on which introductory grammar you’re using, you may see it called the vav-consecutive, the vav-conversive, the vav-relative, the vav-reversive, or the preterite. Biblical Hebrew has dedicated this verbal form as a preservation of an old past tense verbal form and has used it primarily for its literary past-time narrative. ylik@e0ha-l)e the-bag
to
wOdyF-t)e DO-hand-his
Nbe)e0
dwId@F
xla#$;y,IwA
David and-he-sent
M#$%fmi
xq@ay,IwA
stone from-there then-he-took
(l@aqay:wA then-he-slung
wOxc;mi-l)e brow-his
to
yt@i#$;lip%;ha-t)e
K7y,awA
DO-the-Philistine
then-he-struck
David put his hand into the shepherd’s bag and took out a stone. He hurled it with a sling and struck the Philistine on his brow. 1 Samuel 17:49
112
TENSE AND ASPECT
ASPECT The debate linguists have over tense or aspect, again, centers solely on the REAL or INDICATIVE MOOD verbal forms. All other IRREAL verbal forms are off the table in the discussion here. Here’s what’s on the table as aspectual indicative mood verbal forms. ¾ Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation, when in the indicative mood: פָּ קַ ד/קָ טַ ל ¾ Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation, when in the indicative mood: קד ֹ יִ ְפ/יִ ְקטֹ ל What we find formally in Biblical Hebrew are verbal forms that convey PERFECTIVE ASPECT (= Suffix Conjugation) and IMPERFECTIVE ASPECT (= Prefix Conjugation). The language does not have a formal verbal form for the RESULTATIVE-STATIVE, though the Suffix and Prefix Conjugations can express the equivalent. SUFFIX (PERFECT) CONJUGATION The Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation denotes the PERFECTIVE ASPECT when in the indicative mood. How does one know when it is indicative? There’s generally a good diagnostic for this, and it involves syntax. Consider the Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation to be in the indicative mood when, in a clause, it does not occur immediately after the conjunction vav וּ/ ְו. hlfy:l0f
)rFqf
K7#$ex0olaw:
The darkness he called “Night.”
night he-called and-the-darkness
Genesis 1:5
MtabfnFg%:
lx'rF yk@i bqo(jyA
she-had-stolen-them Rachel that
(dAyF -)lo
Jacob he-knew
not
Jacob did not know that Rachel had stolen them. Genesis 31:32
tfy#0&i(f hme
rme)yo,2wA
He said, “What have you done?”
you-have-done what and-he-said
Genesis 4:10
w%nt@f0x;nAz: Myhilo)v you-have-rejected-us
God, you have rejected us.
God
Psalm 60:3 MT (60:1 Eng.)
113
TENSE AND ASPECT
MwOy,ha yt@id:g%A2hi
I declare today . . .
the-day I-declare
Deuteronomy 26:3
wOt)o DO-him
hn%'hi K1yt0@i(;ma#$; l)('mf#$;yIl;w%
Now about Ishmael:
I-shall-bless behold I-heard-you and-to-Ishmael
I have heard you.
yt@ik;r0Ab'@
I shall bless him. Genesis 17:20
Here you can notice the variety of tenses we use in English to convey the perfective aspect of the Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation. PREFIX (IMPERFECT) CONJUGATION The Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation denotes the IMPERFECTIVE ASPECT when in the indicative mood. How does one know when it is indicative? That’s tricky, more so than for the Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation we just considered. The diagnostic is largely contextual, though if the Prefix form is preceded by אַ ל, the Prefix form is not indicative but modal, since אַ ל+ Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation is a way to express a negative command—irreal volitional mood. hte@#$;ti
wOsk@omiw%
From his cup she would drink.
she-would-drink and-from-cup-his
2 Samuel 12:3
hnF#$fb; hnF#$f
Nk'w:
This he would do year after year.
in-year
year he-would-do and-thus
1 Samuel 1:7
hk@eb;ti
hkobfw% hwhy-l(a
she-cries and-crying
h#&e(jyA
YHWH
ll@'p%at;t@iwA
She prayed to YHWH and
to and-she-prayed
began weeping excessively. 1 Samuel 1:10
rwOb@gIk@; yla(f
CruyF
He rushes at me like a warrior.
like-warrior at-me he-runs
Job 16:14
114
MOOD
MOOD MOOD or MODALITY is the attitude or disposition a speaker has toward what she or he is expressing. Mood reflects the speaker’s mood, as it were. A speaker can declare that an event happened (truthfully or untruthfully). She can command, demand, or wish that something that hasn’t occurred ought to occur. She can prohibit an action that hasn’t occurred from happening. With English and Biblical Hebrew in mind, we can categorize moods into two major divisions. Some prefer to use the labels (1) REAL and (2) IRREAL; others prefer the labels (1) ACTUAL and (2) POTENTIAL. I shall use the first set. In the first paragraph above, the concept of ‘declare’ is a real or actual mood. The rest of the concepts, ‘command’, ‘demand’, ‘wish’, ‘prohibit’ are different expressions within the irreal or potential mood. Here are some illustrations: You went up to Jerusalem. (= real/indicative mood) Go up to Jerusalem. (= irreal/volitional mood = here imperative) Let’s go up to Jerusalem. (= irreal/volitional mood = here 1st person) You should go up to Jerusalem. (= irreal/nonvolitional “modal” = here obligation) Mood reflects a speaker’s disposition toward whether a verbal process is real (or actual) or irreal (or potential).
ENGLISH We refer to the REAL MOOD generally as the INDICATIVE MOOD. Under the IRREAL MOODS we focus our attention on many different possible situations. We shall categorize the irreal moods as the VOLITIONAL and the NONVOLITIONAL. In the former, the speaker imposes his or her will on an addressee. In the latter, the speaker expresses an attitude about a situation without imposing his or her will. The SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD fits here. English also uses a 115
MOOD
variety of modal auxiliaries (may, should, ought, can, might, must, etc.), which we shall call MODALS, to convey attitudes such as PERMISSION (may), OBLIGATION (should, ought), CAPABILITY (can), POSSIBILITY (might), NECESSITY (must), DELIBERATION (should), etc. Rather than have special verb forms that express attitudes such as permission, etc., English adds these modals into the clause along with a verb. We thus have the following: (1) Real Mood = Indicative Mood (2) Irreal Mood (a) Volitional Mood (i) Imperative/2nd Person (ii) 1st Person (iii) 3rd Person (b) Nonvolitional Mood (i) Subjunctive Mood (ii) Modals a) Permission b) Obligation c) Capability d) Possibility e) Necessity f) Deliberation, etc. REAL MOOD = INDICATIVE MOOD Also known as the DECLARATIVE mood because it declares, the real or indicative mood customarily does the following. ¾ Asserts (what is intended to be understood as) a fact Abraham lived in Hebron. Joseph is in Egypt. David will return to Jerusalem.
116
MOOD
•
and, closely related, probes for information, often expecting an assertion in return Are you the king?
¾ Asserts a condition based on intended fact If Joseph is in Egypt, you will meet him. If the condition is real that Joseph is in Egypt, you can meet him. (The subordinate clause, “If Joseph is in Egypt,” asserts the condition, the focus of this function of the indicative; the other clause [the main clause], “you will meet him,” asserts what is intended to be fact, the first function of the indicative mentioned above.)
The list is hardly exhaustive. The indicative conveys a verbal process that meshes with the speaker’s perception of reality and his or her intent to have the hearer understand reality accordingly. The speaker asserts that the verbal process has occurred, is occurring, or is likely to occur. Why talk of the speaker’s role in all this? A person can willfully convey lies, distortion, etc., that are far from reality. The indicative mood is not a mood of the real in the sense of “actual.” It is only real or declarative in the sense of what the speaker asserts to be real or declarative. IRREAL MOOD Volitional Mood The volitional mood imposes the will of the speaker onto an entity being addressed. It is irreal, however, because what the speaker desires depends on whether the addressee will accede to the speaker’s will. The speaker’s will is thus not actual unless the addressee performs what the speaker desires. We can talk about three different types of volitional moods or volitives. Imperative/2nd Person Volition 1st Person Volition 3rd Person Volition
117
MOOD
Imperative/2nd Person Volition Second-person volition is better known among English speakers as the IMPERATIVE. The speaker wishes to impose his or her will on the grammatical second person. The order may be to one person or several people. The imperative commonly uses the dictionary form of the verb but no second-person subject pronoun (see PRONOUN, p. 47), though it may occur. Bow before the king! Sit here! You, stop that! English acrolect (the prestige variety of the language) also expresses secondperson volition by you shall + verb. By contrast, you will + verb expresses the future tense (see TENSE, p. 102) of the indicative mood. Few English speakers observe this distinction.13 You shall keep the Sabbath! (= volition) The speaker is imposing his/her will onto the addressee. The addressee is expected to obey the order.
You will be on Sinai. (= indicative mood) The speaker is simply asserting a fact that will occur.
1st Person Volition The first-person volition expresses the will of the speaker alone or as part of a group. The speaker resolves to carry out a verbal process. English acrolect expresses the first-person volition by I/We will + verb. By contrast, I/We shall + verb expresses the future tense (see TENSE, p. 102) of the indicative mood. Few, if any, English speakers observe this distinction.
13
As I mentioned in the introduction, within the halls of the academy, the commonest surroundings I envision for this textbook, it is pedagogically useful to use English’s acrolect, its prestige forms, while pointing out pertinent colloquial forms. The academy, on occasion, still expects the acrolect of its students.
118
MOOD
I/We will go to the temple. (= 1st person volition) This expresses the speaker’s will to go to the temple.
I/We shall go to the temple. (= indicative mood) The speaker is simply asserting what will occur.
Where a speaker does not have the power or authority to bring about his/her resolve, first-person volition is commonly expressed by may I/we or let me/us. Be careful: the latter is spoken by the speaker to the speaker. If it were spoken to impose the speaker’s will onto a second person, that would be the imperative. May I/we eat meat? Let me/us pass through. Let’s go to Bethel. 3rd Person Volition In third-person volition the speaker wishes to impose his or her will on the grammatical third person, singular or plural. May YHWH bless you. Let him pass through. Long live the king! (= May the king live.) Let him go to Bethel. Nonvolitional Mood The irreal nonvolitional mood is an expression of the speaker’s will or attitude about a situation without imposing the will. Subjunctive Mood The subjunctive mood commonly expresses a situation or condition that is not actual. It expresses an irreal projection of a situation or condition. The term subjunctive appears to reflect that this mood is commonly found in subordinate clauses, that is, clauses that are subjoined (see DEPENDENT OR SUBORDINATE, p. 146, under CLAUSE). It is in such subjoined clauses that this mood frequently projects a particular situation. The subjunctive mood can, however, occur in independent clauses. 119
MOOD
Those of you who have had languages such as Spanish, German, or Latin have had to learn paradigms of verbal forms known as the subjunctive. In English, the situation is far less complex, which accounts for a great deal of confusion for many English speakers in identifying the use of the subjunctive mood. English speakers, in fact, seem to be using it less and less. The following represent where we characteristically find the subjunctive. ¾ Clauses that begin with if and are a projection in the mind of the speaker are in the subjunctive mood. If I were you, I would run. (= subjunctive mood) subordinate clause verb is subjunctive mood
The verb follows if and expresses a projection in the mind of the speaker: here the speaker (“I”) projects herself onto an addressee (“you”).
If I was you, I would run. (= English basilect, not acrolect/“prestige”) This is, at best, basilect. At worst, it is incorrect grammar. It should not be used by the speaker to project herself on the addressee.
If only we knew Biblical Hebrew fluently. independent clause verb is subjunctive mood
The verb follows if and expresses a nonfactual or irreal condition: the speaker does not know Hebrew fluently.
¾ Clauses that begin with though (= concessive, that is, a projection of conceding or acknowledging something) are often in the subjunctive mood. Though he be correct, he mustn’t offend her. subordinate clause verb is subjunctive mood
¾ Clauses that follow a verb that expresses a wish, a demand, a doubt, a request, or a proposal are in the subjunctive mood. Here are some verbs that often
120
MOOD
govern clauses where English acrolect/“prestige” uses (or should use) the subjunctive: wish, demand, request, command, suggest, prefer, ask, insist. I wish (that) Elijah were here. subordinate clause verb is subjunctive mood
Pharaoh demanded (that) Moses come. subordinate clause verb is subjunctive mood
She requested (that) he be here. subordinate clause verb is subjunctive mood
The king commanded (that) the prophet leave the city. subordinate clause verb is subjunctive mood
¾ Clauses that follow the following constructions are in the subjunctive mood: it is essential/important/necessary/vital + (that). It is essential (that) you be the leader. subordinate clause verb is subjunctive mood
It was vital (that) Abigail speak to David. subordinate clause verb is subjunctive mood
The form of the subjunctive is quite simple. The subjunctive does not change in form regardless of person (1st, 2nd, 3rd). English does use present and past forms in the subjunctive, for example, live/lived. The present subjunctive, for most verbs, is the dictionary form (= English infinitive without to). The past subjunctive is the expected past tense form. One prominent exception is (to) be, which uses be for the present and were for the past.
121
MOOD
FORM OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE (TO) BE
MOST VERBS PRESENT
PAST
PRESENT
PAST
I live you live he, she, it live we live you live they live
I lived you lived he, she, it lived we lived you lived they lived
I be you be he, she, it be we be you be they be
I were you were he, she, it were we were you were they were
Figure 28: English Subjunctive
Modals English also uses a variety of modal auxiliaries (may, should, ought, can, might, must, etc.), which we have called modals. Rather than have special verb forms that express a variety of attitudes, English adds these modals into the clause along with a verb. ¾ Permission: conveys the speaker’s permission for an entity to carry out a verbal process. You may feed the children. You may live on my holy hill. ¾ Obligation: conveys what the speaker or addressee considers necessary, an obligation. You should go to Jerusalem. This is what I should do. ¾ Capability: conveys the speaker or addressee’s capability to perform a verbal process. You can leave the prison now, Joseph. A stone could kill Goliath.
122
MOOD
¾ Possibility: conveys the possibility of what the speaker or addressee says about a verbal process. That event might happen. David might return to Jerusalem. ¾ Necessity: conveys the necessity on the speaker or addressee to carry out a verbal process. You must return to Jerusalem. I must return to Jerusalem. ¾ Deliberation: conveys the speaker or addressee’s deliberation on whether to carry out a verbal process. This is commonly found in question form. Should we attend the feast in Jerusalem? Should you live by the river?
BIBLICAL HEBREW Mood is conveyed through the verbal forms. We can categorize the moods as (1) REAL or (2) IRREAL. We refer to the real mood more commonly as the INDICATIVE MOOD. We shall categorize the irreal moods, as we did for English, as the VOLITIONAL and the NONVOLITIONAL. We do not, however, formally talk of the subjunctive mood in Biblical Hebrew. Hebrew likely made use of the subjunctive at an earlier stage of the language—Arabic (a related Semitic language) has a special subjunctive verb form. The meaning of the subjunctive lives on but is not conveyed in a special form of the verb. Hebrew grammars do not treat the subjunctive and neither shall I. However, we do talk of irreal nonvolitionals such as PERMISSION, OBLIGATION, CAPABILITY, DELIBERATION, etc., though Biblical Hebrew has no formal verbal forms dedicated to conveying such meanings. We thus have (1) Real Mood = Indicative Mood (2) Irreal Mood
123
MOOD
(a) Volitional Mood (i) Imperative = 2nd Person (ii) Jussive = all 3 Persons (b) Nonvolitional Mood (i) Permission (ii) Obligation (iii) Capability (iv) Deliberation, etc. REAL MOOD = INDICATIVE MOOD The Suffix (Perfect) and Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugations commonly convey the indicative mood. Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation
l)'rF#&;yI-l(a dwId@F
K7lamf
David reigned over Israel.
Israel over David reigned
1 Kings 2:11
Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation
Myxiq;pi% rw%"(ay: dxa#0$o%ha
The bribe blinds officials.
officials blinds the-bribe
Exodus 23:8
IRREAL MOOD Volitional Mood Biblical Hebrew has two primary forms for the volitional mood or volitives, each with distinctive verbal forms. Imperative = 2nd person Jussive = all 3 persons Imperative = 2nd Person Biblical Hebrew has IMPERATIVE verbal forms, a second-person phenomenon. These imperatives are used for positive commands. No negative commands use the imperative. For negative second-person commands, Biblical Hebrew commonly uses l)a or )lo immediately before second-person Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation forms, a form and function of the jussive mood. Consult your grammar book for the variety of forms for the imperative. 124
MOOD
w%(#$;piw% l)'-tyb' w%)bo@0 and-sin
Bethel
Go to Bethel and sin! Amos 4:4
go
The INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE sometimes takes the place of an imperative verbal form. אֶ ת־יוֹם הַ שַּׁ בָּ ת the-sabbath
DO-day-of
זָכוֹר
Remember the Sabbath.
remember
Exodus 20:8
Jussive = All 3 Persons The jussive in Biblical Hebrew occurs commonly in the third person, though first and second persons are represented. The jussive’s form is often identical to the Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation’s non-jussive-mood forms, with the following more recognizable exceptions. ¾ Qal Stem III-he or II-vav/yod roots hneb;yI Nbey2I bw%#$yF b#o$yF
he will build (= Qal Prefix [Imperfect] Conjugation, non-jussive form) let him build / he must build (= Qal jussive form) he will return (= Qal Prefix [Imperfect] Conjugation, non-jussive form) let him return / he must return (= Qal jussive form)
¾ Hifil Stem, where the jussive form is recognizable by ◌ ֵ instead of the nonjussive’s ִ◌י י ְַפ ִקיד/ = י ְַק ִטילHifil Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation, non-jussive form י ְַפ ֵקד/ = י ְַקטֵ לHifil jussive form ¾ First-person jussive in all stems, where ◌ה ָ is routinely on the end of the Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation, known as the COHORTATIVE אֶ ְפ ְק ָדה/ = אֶ ְק ְטלָ הQal 1st person Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation, jussive form
125
MOOD
Because the jussive form is often ambiguous, you need to be careful that you rely on textual environment (context) to help you pick up the jussive sense of will or volition. ambiguous in form jussive in sense
K1r0Em;#$;yIw: hwhy and-may-he-keep-you
YHWH
K1k;rEbfy:
May YHWH bless you and keep you.
may-he-bless-you
Numbers 6:24
For negative second-person commands, Biblical Hebrew commonly uses l)a or )lo immediately before second-person jussive forms. xcfr:ti@ )lo you-shall-murder
w%hy,F2qiz:hi-l)e Hezekiah
You shall not/never murder! Exodus 20:13
not
w%(m;#$;t@i-l)a
Do not listen to Hezekiah!
to you-shall-listen not
2 Kings 18:31
Nonvolitional Mood Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation The Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation commonly conveys irreal nonvolitional mood, though, again, Biblical Hebrew lacks a formalized form different from the Prefix Conjugation’s real mood forms. ¾ Permission: conveys the speaker’s permission for the addressee to carry out a verbal process. tymitf@
ynAbf
yn"#$;-t)e
My two sons you may kill.
you-may-kill sons-my
DO-two-of
Genesis 42:37
¾ Obligation: conveys what the speaker or addressee considers necessary, an obligation. Nw%#&(jt@a r#$e)j t)' you-should-do
what
DO
Mket;)e
ytiyr"wOhw:
I’ll teach you what
DO-you
and-I-shall-teach
you should do. Exodus 4:15
126
MOOD
¾ Capability: conveys the speaker or addressee’s capability to perform a verbal process. )c'm@fyI )lo he-can-be-found
#$rFxfw:
A metal worker could not be found.
not and-metalworker
1 Samuel 13:19
¾ Deliberation: conveys the speaker or addressee’s deliberation on whether to carry out a verbal process. This is commonly found in question form. w%nt'0wOx)j-t)e
h#&e(jyA
hnFwOzk;ha
Should he have
DO-sister-our
he-should-treat
INTERROG-like-prostitute
treated our sister like a prostitute? Genesis 34:31
Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation The Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation, when it has the conjunction וּ/ ְ וattached to it (the veqatal), commonly expresses irreal nonvolitional mood similar to the nonvolitional senses the Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation can convey. Mket@;)i
Myciw%lxj
w%rb;(ayA )lo -M)iw:
with-you battle-prepared they-will-cross-over not and-if
N(an2Fk@;
CrE)e0b@;
Mkek;tob;
w%zxj)now:
Canaan in-land-of in-midst-your and-they-must-be-settled
But if they will not cross over with you armed, they must settle with you in Canaan. Numbers 32:30 The first clause sets out a condition. The veqatal, which starts the second clause, expresses nonvolitional mood relative to the condition: if . . . (then) they must settle. In the following example, a Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation verb form occurs in the first clause, dbo(jt@a. It conveys mood: Six days you shall work. The veqatal, which begins the second clause, continues to express the mood: and you shall do all your work. dbo(jt@a MymiyF t#$e#$'0 you-shall-work
127
days
six
MOOD
K1t@e0k;)lam;-lk@f work-your
all and-you-shall-do
Six days you shall work and (shall) do all your work. Exodus 20:9
128
tfy#0&i(fw:
IMPERATIVE/2ND PERSON VOLITION
IMPERATIVE / 2ND PERSON VOLITION The IMPERATIVE, a MOOD, imposes the will of a speaker onto an entity. You need to read the entire chapter on MOOD (p. 115) to understand how the imperative fits into the bigger picture of mood.
ENGLISH Second-person volition is better known among English speakers as the IMPERATIVE. The speaker wishes to impose his or her will on the grammatical second person. The order may be to one person or several people. The imperative commonly uses the dictionary form of the verb but no second-person subject pronoun (see PRONOUN, p. 47), though it may occur. Bow before the king! Sit here! You, stop that! English acrolect (the prestige variety of the language) also expresses secondperson volition by you shall + verb. By contrast, you will + verb expresses the future tense (see TENSE, p. 102) of the indicative mood. Few English speakers observe this distinction.14 You shall keep the Sabbath! (= volition) The speaker is imposing his/her will onto the addressee. The addressee is expected to obey the order.
You will be on Sinai. (= indicative mood) The speaker is simply asserting a fact that will occur.
14
As I mentioned in the introduction, within the halls of the academy, the commonest surroundings I envision for this textbook, it is pedagogically useful to use English’s acrolect, its prestige forms, while pointing out pertinent colloquial forms. The academy, on occasion, still expects the acrolect of its students.
129
IMPERATIVE/ 2ND PERSON VOLITION
BIBLICAL HEBREW Biblical Hebrew has IMPERATIVE verbal forms, a second-person phenomenon. These imperatives are used for positive commands. No negative commands use the imperative. For negative second-person commands, Biblical Hebrew commonly uses l)a or )lo immediately before second-person Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation forms, a form and function of the jussive mood. Consult your grammar book for the variety of forms for the imperative. w%(#$;piw% l)'-tyb' w%)bo@0 and-sin
Bethel
Go to Bethel and sin! Amos 4:4
go
The INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE sometimes takes the place of an imperative verbal form. הַ שַּׁ בָּ ת
אֶ ת־יוֹם
זָכוֹר
Remember the Sabbath.
the-sabbath
DO-day-of
remember
Exodus 20:8
130
JUSSIVE
JUSSIVE The JUSSIVE is one of the categories of the volitional mood, where the speaker imposes his or her will onto an entity being addressed. The label is not terribly common among English speakers. You need to read the entire chapter on MOOD (p. 115) to understand how the jussive fits into the bigger picture of mood.
ENGLISH The jussive, a label closely linked to the study of Biblical Hebrew, is akin to first-, second-, and third-person volition in English. 1ST PERSON VOLITION The FIRST-PERSON VOLITION expresses the will of the speaker alone or as part of a group. The speaker resolves to carry out a verbal process. English acrolect (the prestige variety of the language) expresses the first-person volition by I/We will + verb. By contrast, I/We shall + verb expresses the future tense (see TENSE, p. 102) of the indicative mood. Few English speakers observe this distinction.15 I/We will go to the temple. (= 1st person volition) This expresses the speaker’s will to go to the temple.
I/We shall go to the temple. (= indicative mood) The speaker is simply stating a fact that will occur.
Where a speaker does not have the power or authority to bring about his/her resolve, first-person volition is commonly expressed by may I/we or let me/us. Be careful: the latter is spoken by the speaker to the speaker. If it were spoken to impose the speaker’s will onto a second person, that would be the imperative. May I/we eat meat? Let me/us pass through.
15
As I mentioned in the introduction, within the halls of the academy, the commonest surroundings I envision for this textbook, it is pedagogically useful to use English’s acrolect, its prestige forms, while pointing out pertinent colloquial forms. The academy, on occasion, still expects the acrolect of its students.
131
JUSSIVE
Let’s go to Bethel. 2ND PERSON VOLITION The SECOND-PERSON VOLITION expresses the will of the speaker to the addressee, the second person. English acrolect expresses second-person volition by you shall + verb. By contrast, you will + verb expresses the future tense (see TENSE, p. 102) of the indicative mood. Few English speakers observe this distinction. You shall keep the Sabbath! (= volition) The speaker is imposing his/her will onto the addressee. The addressee is expected to obey the order.
You will be on Sinai. (= indicative mood) The speaker is simply asserting a fact that will occur.
3RD PERSON VOLITION The THIRD-PERSON VOLITION is where the speaker wishes to impose his or her will onto the grammatical third person, singular or plural. English expresses the third-person volition by He/They will + verb. By contrast, He/They shall + verb expresses the future tense (see TENSE, p. 102) of the indicative mood. Few English speakers observe this distinction. He/They will go to the temple. (= 3rd person volition) This expresses the speaker’s will that the grammatical 3rd person go to the temple.
He/They shall go to the temple. (= indicative mood) The speaker is simply stating a fact that will occur.
Where a speaker does not have the power or authority to bring about his/her resolve, third-person volition is commonly expressed by may he/she/it/they or let him/her/it/them. May YHWH bless you. Let her pass through. Long live the king! (= May the king live.)
132
JUSSIVE
Let them go to Bethel.
BIBLICAL HEBREW The JUSSIVE in Biblical Hebrew occurs commonly in the third person, though first and second persons are represented. The jussive’s form is often identical with the Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation’s non-jussive-mood forms, with the following more recognizable exceptions. ¾ Qal Stem III-he or II-vav/yod roots hneb;yI Nbey2I bw%#$yF b#o$yF
he will build (= Qal Prefix [Imperfect] Conjugation, non-jussive form) let him build / he must build (= Qal jussive form) he will return (= Qal Prefix [Imperfect] Conjugation, non-jussive form) let him return / he must return (= Qal jussive form)
¾ Hifil Stem, where the jussive form is recognizable by ◌ ֵ instead of the nonjussive’s ִ◌י י ְַפ ִקיד/ = י ְַק ִטילHifil Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation, non-jussive form י ְַפ ֵקד/ = י ְַקטֵ לHifil jussive form ¾ First-person jussive in all stems, where ◌ה ָ is routinely on the end of the Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation, known as the COHORTATIVE אֶ ְפ ְק ָדה/ = אֶ ְק ְטלָ הQal 1st person Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation, jussive form Because the jussive form is often ambiguous, you need to be careful that you rely on textual environment (context) to help you pick up the jussive sense of will or volition.
133
JUSSIVE ambiguous in form jussive in sense
K1r0Em;#$;yIw: hwhy and-may-he-keep-you
YHWH
K1k;rEbfy:
May YHWH bless you and keep you.
may-he-bless-you
Numbers 6:24
For negative second-person commands, Biblical Hebrew commonly uses l)a or )lo immediately before second-person jussive form. xcfr:ti@ )lo you-shall-murder
w%hy,F2qiz:hi-l)e Hezekiah
You shall not/never murder! Exodus 20:13
not
w%(m;#$;t@i-l)a
Do not listen to Hezekiah!
to you-shall-listen not
2 Kings 18:31
134
VOICE
VOICE VOICE refers either to (1) a fundamental part in producing sound (see SOUND PRODUCTION, p. 7) or (2) a relationship between the grammatical subject, the verb, and adverbials. This chapter focuses solely on the latter meaning. We need to understand the syntactic notions of SUBJECT (see SUBJECT, p. 149) and DIRECT OBJECT (see DIRECT OBJECT ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT, p. 158) and the semantic roles of AGENT–PATIENT, SENSER–PHENOMENON, and BENEFICIARY (see SEMANTICS: PROCESSES, ROLES, AND CIRCUMSTANCES, p. 166). Our discussion here uses two terms that embrace or subsume the more specific terms of agent–patient or senser–phenomenon, etc. •
INITIATOR: the semantic concept referring to an entity responsible for a process
•
RECEPTOR: the semantic concept referring to the entity receiving a process16
In a clause, we may find a word or word grouping that is the grammatical subject as well as the semantic initiator. The subject and initiator labels refer to that same word or word grouping from two different perspectives. One is from the perspective of syntax, the other from semantic roles. Sometimes we find a word or word grouping that is the grammatical direct object as well as the semantic receptor. Subject, direct object, initiator, and receptor are important in understanding voice. Below we shall be learning about the (1) active, (2) passive, (3) reflexive, and (4) middle voices. The last two, reflexive and middle, require special comment. Many languages, including Biblical Hebrew, have special verbal forms to express the middle voice. In those languages, the middle forms routinely express a wide range of verbal processes, one of which is something we can call reflexive. We shall 16
Though these terms are not both hers, I am indebted to the work of Suzanne Kemmer for the notion of using such overarching terms. Additionally, my discussion of the middle voice is greatly influenced by her. See Suzanne Kemmer, The Middle Voice (Typological Studies in Language 23; Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1993).
135
VOICE
separate these two conceptually close voices, primarily to help us see their differences. English conveys both a reflexive and a middle. The reflexive is clearly expressed. A particular structure/syntax expresses it. The middle, less clearly, does not regularly have a special structure or special verbal forms. Often it can look like the active voice. That creates a hurdle for us in English.
ENGLISH Within English, we can talk about four voices: (1) active, (2) passive, (3) reflexive, and (4) middle. ACTIVE VOICE The active voice is expressed when the grammatical subject is also the semantic initiator. The subject performs the verb’s process. Further, the verbal process initiated by the initiator has minimal impact back toward the initiator. We shall return to this later under the middle voice. Look at an example where the verb is intransitive (does not govern a direct object). Moses spat. verb: intransitive process: spit subject initiator: responsible for the process
Now consider an example where the verb is transitive (governs a direct object). Moses broke the tablets.
verb: transitive process: break
direct object receptor: receives process
subject initiator: responsible for process
When the verb is transitive and we thus have a direct object, the direct object is also the semantic receptor. 136
VOICE
¾ The active voice, then, is expressed when the subject is the initiator of a verbal process that has minimal impact back on the initiator (and, if present, the direct object is the receptor). PASSIVE VOICE The passive voice is expressed when the grammatical subject is also the semantic receptor. The subject receives the verb’s process. Further, an initiator is in mind, whether explicitly expressed or not. The tablet was broken (by Moses). prepositional phrase initiator: responsible for process verb process: break subject receptor: receives process
¾ The passive voice, then, is expressed when the subject is the receptor and an initiator is in mind, whether explicit or implicit. REFLEXIVE VOICE The reflexive voice is expressed when the grammatical subject is the semantic initiator and receptor. The subject both performs and receives the verb’s process. The initiator carries out a verbal process on itself just as it would on another entity. In English, a reflexive pronoun (a pronoun that refers back to the subject; see p. 52) functions as a direct object. Saul cut himself. verb process: cut
direct object receptor referring to subject/initiator
subject initiator: performs process receptor: receives process
137
VOICE
¾ The reflexive voice, then, is expressed when the subject is both the semantic initiator and receptor and a reflexive pronoun stands as a direct object and refers to the subject. MIDDLE VOICE Arriving at a clear understanding of the middle voice is not without its hurdles. English speakers encounter such barriers because, unlike Biblical Hebrew, for example, English does not offer a special form of the verb when expressing the middle voice. The middle voice in English, without special verbal forms, often looks similar to the active voice. A conceptual difference, however, lies at the heart of understanding the middle from the other voices. Let’s start by contrasting the middle with the reflexive. They are closely related. For the reflexive, the subject both performs and receives the verb’s process. The initiator, in the reflexive, carries out a verbal process on itself just as it would on another entity. The middle voice, though, involves a closer fusion between the initiator and receptor than a corresponding reflexive. The two semantic roles of initiator and receptor are participants in a more holistic verbal process than in the reflexive. Here is a way to conceptualize the difference.17
initiator receptor initiator
receptor
Middle
Reflexive
Figure 29: Conceptualization of Reflexive vs. Middle Voice
Here are some sample clauses to illustrate the difference. (1) Samson shaved himself. 17
=
reflexive
The idea of the conceptualization is from Kemmer, The Middle Voice, 71.
138
VOICE
(2) Samson shaved.
=
middle
(3) The tablet broke.
=
middle
(4) David bowed.
=
middle
(5) Saul strolled.
=
middle
(6) Qohelet pondered.
=
middle
Example 1 is reflexive. The syntactic subject and semantic initiator, Samson, is here carrying out a verbal process, ‘shave’, onto a syntactic direct object and semantic receptor, which is a reflexive pronoun. Samson is carrying out the verbal process just as he would on any entity. The initiator is here acting on a receptor, which happens to refer back to and have an impact on the initiator. Example 2 is a middle voice GROOMING expression. Grooming is a common middle-voice phenomenon. Samson shaved is conceptually a closer fusion of the initiator and receptor than the reflexive counterpart, example 1. Examples 1 and 2 share the phenomenon that an initiator is making an impact on itself, but they are different because example 2 conveys a more holistic verbal process than in the reflexive. Additionally, Samson shaved is not the active voice, though it may seem similar to it. The verbal process involved in the active voice has minimal impact back onto an initiator. In the active voice expression, Moses spat, the verbal process of ‘spit’ is not conveying an impact back onto Moses, the initiator. But in Samson shaved, the process of ‘shave’ impacts the initiator, Samson. Example 3 represents a large group within the middle voice we can label 18 SPONTANEOUS EVENT. These are other examples: The food burned; The mountain eroded; The bubble burst; The cloud vanished; The race began; The water shimmered. With this group of middle constructions we can clearly envision the close fusion of initiator and receptor conceptualized by a circular arrow coming back on itself. Examples 4 and 5 represent another large group centered around MOTION. David bowed is an example of nonspatial movement, movement without traveling spatially. Saul strolled is spatial movement, traveling spatially. As with all middles,
18
The term is from Kemmer, The Middle Voice, 19 and passim.
139
VOICE
the initiator and receptor enjoy a close fusion. By bowing, David is both initiator and receptor. By strolling, Saul, too, is both initiator and receptor. Qohelet pondered, example 6, expresses COGNITION, another sphere of the middle voice. The process of mulling over or pondering is one where Qohelet is both initiator and receptor. Notice something important. All the middle-voice examples above are intransitive (the verb does not take a direct object). Their intransitivity, along with the close fusion of initiator and receptor, places them squarely within the middle voice. But what happens when an expression has a verb from one of the middle-voice spheres (cognition, movement, spontaneous event, etc.) and has transitivity (a direct object is governed by a verb)? The principle to keep in mind is, again, that the middle expresses a close fusion of the initiator and receptor. If transitivity erodes that fusion significantly, we are no longer encountering the middle. Qohelet pondered, for example, could become Qohelet pondered wisdom. We could well understand Qohelet pondered wisdom as the active voice; Qohelet, the initiator, is not closely fused with the receptor, wisdom. Biblical Hebrew, with its different stems, more explicitly shows distinct voices, assisting us more clearly. It is the relative distinguishability of initiator and receptor that separates the middle from the reflexive. The more indistinguishable the initiator and receptor, the closer we are to the middle voice, and thus further from the reflexive. ¾ The middle voice, then, is expressed when the subject is both the semantic initiator and receptor, but middle voice involves a closer fusion between the initiator and receptor than a corresponding reflexive. The two semantic roles of initiator and receptor are participants in a more holistic verbal process than in the reflexive.
BIBLICAL HEBREW Biblical Hebrew conveys the same four voices primarily through its system of stems. ACTIVE VOICE Hebrew conveys the active voice primarily through the following stems: QAL (except for its passive participle), PIEL, and HIFIL. 140
VOICE
direct object receptor: receives process subject initiator: responsible for process verb: transitive process: בָּ ָרא + subject (3ms)
ֱֹלהים אֵ ת הַ שָּׁ ֫ ַמיִ ם ִ א the-heavens
DO
בָּ ָרא
God created the heavens.
God he-created
Genesis 1:1
PASSIVE VOICE Hebrew conveys the passive voice primarily through the following stems: NIFAL, PUAL, and HOFAL. verb process: עָ שָׂ ה + subject (3ms) subject receptor: receives process
הוּא ְלבַ דּוֹ יֵעָ שֶׂ ה it-may-be-done
alone
That [food] alone may be prepared.
that
Exodus 12:16
REFLEXIVE VOICE Hebrew conveys the reflexive voice primarily through the HITPAEL Stem and sometimes the NIFAL. subject initiator and receptor
ִמ ְת ַנשֵּׂ א exalted-himself
... אדֹנִ יָּה ֲ ַו
Adonijah ... exalted himself.
and-Adonijah
1 Kings 1:5
We need to understand that syntactically Biblical Hebrew forms the reflexive quite differently from English. Hebrew does not use a reflexive pronoun in the direct object slot. Consider English again: He exalted himself.
141
VOICE
He is the word (pronoun) that functions as subject and initiator; himself is the word (reflexive pronoun) that functions as direct object and receptor. In our Biblical Hebrew example, the Hitpael Stem represents initiator and receptor, without an additional reflexive pronoun. MIDDLE VOICE Hebrew conveys the middle voice primarily through the NIFAL Stem. subject initiator and receptor
ְתּהוֹם ַרבָּ ה great
כָּ ל־ מַ ְעיְ ֹנת
נִ ְב ְקעוּ
All the springs of the great abyss
abyss springs-of all-of they-break-open
burst open. Genesis 7:11
142
Part 3 The Clause and Beyond
CLAUSE
CLAUSE A CLAUSE is a language unit referring to a string of words (a SYNTAGM) that involves a COMMENT, very commonly about a subject that is usually present. (Infinitive clauses are noteworthy for often not having an explicit subject.) The comment is known as the PREDICATE. We commonly talk of two foremost types of clauses: (1) INDEPENDENT and MAIN and (2) DEPENDENT or SUBORDINATE.
INDEPENDENT AND MAIN A clause that stands on its own, with its own complete thought, is an independent clause. The terms independent and main are not completely synonymous. When an independent clause has a dependent or subordinate clause linked to it, we use main to refer to it. An independent clause has no dependent/subordinate clause linked to it. ENGLISH subject verb
direct object
Jacob saw the ladder.
predicate
independent clause main clause
Jacob saw the ladder that went to the sky. dependent/subordinate clause
145
CLAUSE
BIBLICAL HEBREW prepositional phrases
predicate verb subject (the prefix of the Prefix [Imperfect] Conjugation)
hbft@'ha-l)e wylf)' the-ark
b#$ft0@fwA
She [the dove] returned to him in the ark.
to to-him and-she-returned
Genesis 8:9
dependent/subordinate clause
CrE)f0hf-lkf
main clause
yn'p%; -l(a MyIma0
the-earth all faces-of
-yk@i
hbft@'ha -l)e wylf)'
on water because
the-ark
b#$ft0@fwA
to to-him and-she-returned
She [the dove] returned to him in the ark because water was over the surface of the earth. Genesis 8:9
DEPENDENT OR SUBORDINATE A clause that does not stand on its own and must be linked to a main clause is a dependent or subordinate clause. The terms dependent and subordinate are synonymous, unlike independent and main. ENGLISH verb main clause
predicate
Jacob saw the ladder that went to the sky.
prepositional phrase
dependent/subordinate clause
146
CLAUSE
BIBLICAL HEBREW predicate: here a prepositional phrase
CrE)0fhf-lkf
yn'p%;-l(a MyIma0
the-earth all faces-of
main clause
-yk@i hbft@'ha -l)e wylf)'
on water because
the-ark
b#$ft0@fwA
to to-him and-she-returned
dependent/subordinate clause
She [the dove] returned to him in the ark because water was over the surface of the earth. Genesis 8:9
ANATOMY OF A VERBAL CLAUSE In Biblical Hebrew a clause with verbal predication has a SUBJECT and a PREDICATE. The predicate has a VERB and may have ADVERBIALS. You will find more detailed discussion about all this under VERBAL PREDICATION, p. 157. Some linguists distinguish between adverbials that are complements (in a sense of “complete-ment”) and those that are adjuncts. The former is a complete-ment of a verbal process; it is integral to the verbal process when in a clause. The latter is an unnecessary or optional one.19 Dividing adverbials into two main categories is helpful: (1) ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT and (2) ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT, often called the ADVERBIAL MODIFIER. Here is an illustration of the major, basic elements of a verbal clause in Biblical Hebrew.
19
John Lyons, Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 43–50.
147
CLAUSE
+
SUBJECT
PREDICATE
Verb
(+ Adverbials)
Adverbial Complement
Adverbial Adjunct/Modifier
Figure 30: General Anatomy of Verbal Clauses
The important point here is that ¾ a verbal clause has a SUBJECT (see p. 149) and PREDICATE (p. 150); ¾ the predicate has a VERB (p. 99); and ¾ the verb may govern ADVERBIALS, either ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENTS or ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS/MODIFIERS. ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT With the ideas of complement and adjunct in mind, we say that adverbial complements are directly governed by verbs. They are complements; that is, when they occur, they complete the verbal process. They are necessary, needed for wholeness within the syntax where they occur. Syntactically we call them adverbial complements. Semantically they can stand in a variety of roles related to the verbal process: for example, MATERIAL = DOING (“Pharaoh killed the boys”); MENTAL = SENSING (“He heard the cries”). (See the discussion under SEMANTICS: PROCESSES, ROLES, AND CIRCUMSTANCES, p. 166.) ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT/MODIFIER With the ideas of complement and adjunct in mind, we say that adverbial adjuncts are indirectly governed by verbs and refer to circumstances associated with the verbal process.
148
SUBJECT
SUBJECT A SUBJECT is a label for a grammatical function traditionally associated with the entity that carries out the process of a verb or about which a comment is made.
ENGLISH To find the subject of a clause, look for a verb and ask who? or what? before saying the verb. The answer is the clause’s subject. Amos traveled to Bethel. subject
Who traveled to Bethel? Amos = subject The caravan arrived. subject
What arrived? The caravan = subject Goliath is tall. subject
Who is tall? Goliath = subject
BIBLICAL HEBREW As a rule, the subject behaves the same way in Biblical Hebrew as it does in English. Keep in mind: ¾ The subject is already a part of the verb form in the Suffix (Perfect) and Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugations. A separate word functioning as subject is not always necessary. ¾ Hebrew has clauses that are verbless. As a general rule, the element that appears to be more specific or more specified tends to be identified as a subject. This still does not make the choice clear at times, but it appears to be a good rule of thumb. See VERBLESS PREDICATION, p. 150.
149
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
PREDICATE/PREDICATION We can view a clause as having two primary components: a SUBJECT (S) and a PREDICATE (P). In English, the predicate has a verb and may have other words related to the verb, what we call ADVERBIALS (see the discussion below in this chapter under VERBAL PREDICATION, p. 157). For Biblical Hebrew, ask this question every time you encounter a clause: Does this clause have VERBLESS or VERBAL predication? VERBLESS and VERBAL predication are the two options for predication in Biblical Hebrew.
VERBLESS PREDICATION For verbless predication, Biblical Hebrew uses no finite verbal form (for a definition of finite, see FINITE AND NONFINITE, p. 99) in the clause. Verbless predication is expressed in two primary ways. (1) Most commonly, nominals (see NOMINAL, p. 44) simply sit side-by-side,20 or (2) a participle—a nonfinite word form—conveys a verbal process (see under the subsection VERBAL PARTICIPLE, p. 91 in the PARTICIPLE chapter). The former concept of nominals sitting sideby-side is odd to English speakers because English commonly uses linking verbs. (English does, however, have a construction similar to the Hebrew. Think of knocking on a door with the intent of finding whether anybody is present on the other side of the door. You there? is a verbless clause variant of You are there? / Are you there? which uses a linking verb, are.) The order of S(ubject) and P(redicate) is important. As a general rule, but only as a very general one, S–P is the syntax of an IDENTIFICATORY or EQUATIVE clause, while P–S is the syntax of a DESCRIPTIVE or ASCRIPTIVE or CLASSIFICATORY clause. After discussing five types of verbless predication in Biblical Hebrew, I shall return to the S–P vs. P–S issue.
20
We sometimes encounter whole clauses that function as a subject or a predicate in a verbless clause. See an example under the subsection INDEPENDENT RELATIVE CLAUSE, p. 66 in the PRONOUN chapter.
150
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
Here are the concepts ahead. Subject
Predicate Adjective Predicate Adverb(ial) Predicate (Non)Existence Predicate Substantive Predicate Participle Predicate = Verbal Participle
Figure 31: Anatomy of Verbless Clauses
ADJECTIVE PREDICATE An adjective can stand as the predicate in a verbless clause. The adjective is known as a PREDICATE (DESCRIPTIVE) ADJECTIVE. The adjective agrees in NUMBER and GENDER, but not DEFINITENESS with the noun about which the adjective makes a comment. subject singular masculine definite
rbfd@fha bwO+
predicate: adjective singular masculine indefinite
the-idea/word good predicate: adjective plural masculine indefinite
Myk@irA
MydIlfy:ha
Good is the idea. 1 Kings 18:24
subject plural masculine definite
weak the-children
The children are weak. Genesis 33:13
For English, notice how we need to insert a linking verb in each of the examples (is, are). Traditionally, grammarians have suggested that the first example with its P–S syntax (predicate first) may be used to answer the question, What is the idea? Good is the idea (= descriptive/classificatory). The second example with its S–P
151
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
syntax may be used to answer the question, Who is weak? The children are weak (= identificatory). ADVERB(IAL) PREDICATE A prepositional phrase or locative adverb (one that points to a location) can stand as the predicate in a verbless clause. One view of prepositions is to regard them as nominals used ad-verbally, though viewing the prefixed, monograph (singleconsonant) prepositions (בּ, ְ כּ, ְ )ל ְ as true nominals seems to present a problem. Regardless of whether all prepositions are true nominals, they often have an adverbial function. Some grammarians have thus categorized prepositional phrases when used in verbless clauses as adverb(ial phrase) predicates. ¾ Prepositional phrase predicate: prepositional phrase subject
w%nt0@f)i
hwhywA
YHWH is with us.
with-us and-YHWH
Numbers 14:9
¾ Locative (location) adverb predicate: locative adverb subject
ymal;taw:
y#a$#$' Nmayxi)j
and-Talmai Sheshai
M#$fw:
Ahiman, Sheshai, and
Ahiman and-there
Talmai were there. Numbers 13:22
(NON)EXISTENCE PREDICATE To state that something exists, the common noun (or substantive) יֵשׁbeing, existence can be used in the construct state. We say this type of clause has a predicator of existence. For nonexistence, the common noun ַ֫איִ ןnothing can be used in the construct state, אֵ ין. We say this type of clause has a predicator of nonexistence.
152
PREDICATE/PREDICATION predicator of existence
Myqiyd@ica
#$y"
There are righteous ones.
righteous-ones existence-of
(Righteous ones exist.) Ecclesiastes 8:14 predicator of nonexistence
rwOb@ba@ Ps'wOy
-Ny)'
Joseph was not in the pit.
in-the-pit Joseph nothing-of
Genesis 37:29
SUBSTANTIVE PREDICATE Two nouns/substantives (or phrases including noun/substantives) or a noun/substantive and pronoun can stand side-by-side to indicate predication. When the predicate is a noun/substantive or noun/substantival phrase, this is a substantive predicate. Examples include the following. ¾ Substantive (or substantival phrase) juxtaposed to a substantive (or substantival phrase) substantive substantive
C(' xAb@'z:mi@ha
The altar was wood.
wood the-altar
Ezekiel 41:22
¾ Substantive (or substantival phrase) juxtaposed to proper noun proper noun substantive
y#$ayI
wOm#$;w%
His name was “Jesse.”
Jesse and-name-his
1 Samuel 17:12
¾ Substantive (or substantival phrase) juxtaposed to pronoun pronoun substantive
ykinO)f
yrIb;(i
A Hebrew I am.
I Hebrew
Jonah 1:9
153
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
PARTICIPLE PREDICATE = VERBAL PARTICIPLE A participle is commonly used as a predicator in a verbless clause. Though a verbal participle in Biblical Hebrew seems to approximate the function of a finite verb, a clause with a verbal participle is nevertheless considered verbless. This use of the participle does not formally convey aspect/tense and mood, which is what a finite verb, by definition, does. The finite verbal forms in the context surrounding a verbal participle inform us of where to root the participle in terms of aspect/time and mood. For examples, see under VERBAL PARTICIPLE, p. 91. S–P VS. P–S Returning now to the S–P vs. P–S issue, we can, for example, look at the independent, substantive predicate verbless clause. Traditionally, grammarians have made the following semantic distinctions. ¾ S–P: a structure that conveys identification predicate: substantive predicate, #$y)i, with attributive adjective, qyd@Ica subject
qyd@Ica #$y)i righteous
(It is) Noah (and no one else in the immediate textual
xAnO
environment who)
man Noah
was a righteous man. Genesis 6:9
¾ P–S: a structure that conveys classification or description subject
ykinO)f MhfrFb;)a I
predicate: substantival phrase
dbe(0e
Abraham’s servant (as opposed to any other comment)
Abraham servant-of
am I.
Genesis 24:34
This, however, is not always so simple or likely always correct. We need always to consider the wider textual environment (the DISCOURSE). Take the example of two conjoined verbless clauses from 1 Samuel 17:33:
154
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
subject predicate subordinate conjunction
ht@f)a r(an2A-yk@i you
For you are a boy,
subject
predicate
but he has been a
wyrF(un%:mi hmfxfl;mi from-youth-his
lad for
#$y)i
)w%hw:
warrior since his youth.
war man-of and-he
1 Samuel 17:33
The first clause, after the conjunction yk@i, is P–S. Here, consistent with a traditional understanding, the clause conveys classification: What is he? A boy. The second clause, though, does not function according to a traditional understanding in this particular textual environment. The syntax is S–P. The clause’s function, however, is not identificatory. The clause is not conveying “(It is) he (who) has been a warrior since his youth.” Rather, the clause functions as contrastive classification: you’re only a boy, while he’s a seasoned warrior. In the chapter DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, I discuss the concept of markedness for focus (p. 181), the salient and most prominent information in a clause. Suffice it to say here that the second clause is marked and conveys contrastive counter-presuppositional classification. Its S–P syntax does not convey identification. We move on to another important consideration in verbless clauses: the use of demonstrative/personal pronouns הוּאand ִהיאand their plural counterparts. Some refer to these pronouns as PLEONASTIC (dummy or redundant) when used in verbless predication where S and P are already filled with a word or word group. They seemingly cloud an S–P vs. P–S distinction.
155
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
¾ S–pronoun–P predicate pronoun subject
wOtlfxjnA
)w%h hwhy
inheritance-his he/that
YHWH is his inheritance/heritage. Deuteronomy 10:9
YHWH
This clause expresses identification. ¾ S–P–pronoun pronoun predicate subject
)w%h
)m'+f
yxaha r#&fb@fha
The ulcer (raw flesh) is unclean.
he/that unclean the-alive the-flesh
Leviticus 13:15
This clause expresses classification/description. The S–pronoun–P clause presents little trouble since a basic S–P syntax is preserved, though the pronoun is interjected between the two. The S–P–pronoun clause, however, which shows an apparent S–P syntax with pronoun following, is actually conveying description or classification, not identification, which S–P usually does. We can analyze the clauses in the following way to help preserve a clearer S–P vs. P–S distinction. Waltke and O’Connor suggest that the first word or word group be separated out as focus, that is, as most informationally salient or prominent (see the MARKEDNESS FOR FOCUS AND CONNECTIVITY section, p. 181, under DISCOURSE ANALYSIS)—the word or word group that is in focus so to speak.21 The remaining words or word groups are analyzed as S or P. Let us revisit the last two clauses with this insight.
21
Bruce K. Waltke and M. O’Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 130–32.
156
PREDICATE/PREDICATION predicate subject focus
wOtlfxjnA
)w%h hwhy
inheritance-his he/that
As for YHWH, he is his inheritance/heritage. Deuteronomy 10:9
YHWH
This clause, now analyzed as Focus–S–P, expresses identification. subject predicate
)w%h
)m'+f
focus
yxaha r#&fb@fha
As for the ulcer (raw flesh), unclean it is.
he/that unclean the-alive the-flesh
Leviticus 13:15
This clause, now analyzed as Focus–P–S, expresses classification/description.
VERBAL PREDICATION In Biblical Hebrew expect a clause with verbal predication to have a SUBJECT and a PREDICATE. The predicate has a VERB and may have ADVERBIALS. We need to distinguish between adverbials that are complements (in a sense of “complete-ment”) and those that are adjuncts. The former is a complete-ment of a verbal process; it’s integral to the verbal process when in a clause. The latter is an unnecessary or optional one. Dividing adverbials into two main categories is helpful: (1) ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT and (2) ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT/MODIFIER, often called the ADVERBIAL MODIFIER. Here is an illustration of the concepts we shall explore.
157
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
Predicate Subject
Verb
(+ Adverbials) Adverbial Adjunct/Modifier
Adverbial Complement
Non-prepositional Phrase of state of place/location of time of measure etc. Prepositional Phrase (PP) Infinitive Clause
Direct Object Double Direct Object Internal Cognate Non-cognate Infinitive Clause
Figure 32: Detailed Anatomy of Verbal Clauses
Biblical Hebrew is already at a point in the history of the Hebrew language where case endings have disappeared, except for some ossified occurrences. Hebrew once had nominative, accusative, and genitive cases, which were conveyed through morphs or forms (vowels -u, -a, -i, and others) that were a part of a word. We no longer have case endings to help us analyze Biblical Hebrew syntax. I have thus tried to avoid using “case language” for a language that formally doesn’t have case, and I would recommend you do the same. The relationships between the parts of a clause, however, remain, and we must be able to describe them. ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT (AC) With the ideas of complement and adjunct in mind, we say that adverbial complements are directly governed by verbs. They are complements; that is, when they occur, they complete the verbal process. They are necessary, needed for wholeness within the syntax where they occur. Direct Object Adverbial Complement Verbs can govern DIRECT OBJECTS. Syntactically, we call them direct object adverbial complements (or direct objects, for short). Semantically, they can stand in a variety of roles related to the verbal process: for example, MATERIAL = DOING (“Pharaoh killed the boys”); MENTAL = SENSING (“He heard the cries”). (See the discussion under SEMANTICS: PROCESSES, ROLES, AND CIRCUMSTANCES, p. 166.)
158
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
The direct object can, among other things, also be AFFECTED or EFFECTED. An affected object is understood as one existing prior to the action (“He sowed seeds”; “He struck the rock”) while an effected object is produced by the action itself (“He raised crops”; “He built a house”). ¾ Affected Direct Object (Aroz@;ha-t)e DO-the-arm
xqalfw:
Nh'k@oha
The priest is to take the arm/shoulder.
the-priest and-he-will-take
Numbers 6:19
¾ Effected Direct Object )#$ed@e0 CrE)f0hf
)#$'d:t@a
Let the earth produce grass/vegetation.
shoots the-earth she-will-shoot-forth
Genesis 1:11
Many times, as the last example shows, the object has the same root as the verb. In these cases, one can talk of cognate-effected direct objects. Double Direct Object Adverbial Complement Some verbs are doubly transitive; they take two direct objects. Verbal processes that include the notion of ‘cause/causation’ often take two direct objects (“make him [object1] eat fish [object2]”), as do verbs that convey the notions of ‘speaking’ (ask, answer, say, command, teach, etc.) and ‘giving/receiving’ (give, offer, receive, etc.). A Hifil Stem verbal process commonly is doubly transitive. direct object 1
נְ תַ ֫ ָתּנִ י
הַ ֫ ֶנּגֶב
direct object 2
ֶ֫א ֶרץ
You gave me | the Negev.
you-gave-me the-Negev land-of
Joshua 15:19
Internal Adverbial Complement An internal AC expresses the verb’s process. “Fight the fight” is an example. We can divide the internal AC into an INTERNAL COGNATE AC or an INTERNAL NONCOGNATE AC. The former shares the root of the verb. The latter has some other close semantic link with the verb’s meaning. Although in many instances the internal AC functions as the direct object, sometimes the internal AC, instead of being the direct object, makes a comment about the verb’s action. We shall see in time that making a comment about a verbal process is what the adverbial adjunct/modifier routinely does. The sharing of a root or other close semantic link 159
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
between an internal AC and its head verb places it within the sphere of a complement rather than an adverbial adjunct/modifier. Internal Cognate Adverbial Complement The internal cognate AC makes a comment on the verb’s process and is based on the same root as the verb. dxapf0
w%dxjp%f
They were overwhelmed with dread.
fear they-feared
Psalm 14:5
Understand that dxapf0 is making a comment about the verbal process of fearing. dxap0f could be a direct object if the writer meant to say that people were afraid of fear—they feared fear. They often were fearful, for example, and are now afraid of the fear that takes hold of them. This meaning, however, is not what the writer intends (understood from the context)—they are filled with fear. Internal Non-cognate Adverbial Complement The internal non-cognate AC is commonly associated with intransitive verbs that belong to particular semantic fields, a field that has related meanings: ‘abundance’ (e.g., )l'mf); ‘flow’ (e.g., lzanF); ‘scarcity’ (e.g., rs'xf); ‘wearing/taking off clothes’ (e.g., #$b'lf/+#$ap%f). The last semantic field includes many verbs that are both intransitive and transitive. A fuzzy line separates an internal non-cognate AC from an adverbial adjunct/modifier. A general rule of thumb, though, is that verbs within the semantic fields just mentioned take internal non-cognate ACs rather than adverbial adjuncts/modifiers. The former are somehow regarded as necessary with the verb, while adverbial adjuncts/modifiers are somehow not as necessary. This can be a difficult distinction to make, however. CrA#$fw:
The Nile will swarm with frogs.
frogs the-Nile and-it-will-swarm
Exodus 7:28
My(id@:r:pac;
r)oy:ha
160
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
Again, keep in mind that the verb CrA#$f swarm is not directly affecting My(id@:r:pac; frogs. The Nile is here not swarming frogs, that is, inundating them. Frogs are thus not the direct object. The river, rather, is teeming with frogs; it is full of them. They are swarming in the Nile. Infinitive Clause Adverbial Complement Infinitive clauses routinely function as the adverbial complement of a verbal process. We’ll soon see that they also can be adverbial adjuncts/modifiers. Again, the separation is the concept or notion of “complete-ment” the infinitive clause offers the verbal process. Generally, an infinitive clause is functioning as an adverbial adjunct/modifier when it conveys purpose, result, temporality, and other circumstantial information. Let’s see the two in English. ¾ Infinitive clause as adverbial complement infinitive clause as adverbial complement, a “necessary” complete-ment of wants
David wants to visit Jerusalem. to + infinitive main verb
¾ Infinitive clause as adverbial adjunct/modifier infinitive clause as adverbial adjunct to express purpose within the sentence
David came (in order) to visit Jerusalem. to + infinitive main verb
Here’s now an example of a Biblical Hebrew infinitive clause adverbial complement. ְל ִה ְתנַחֵ ם
ַויְ מָ אֵ ן
He refused to be consoled.
to-be-comforted and-he-refused
Genesis 37:35
161
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT/MODIFIER With the idea of complement and adjunct in mind, adverbial adjuncts/modifiers are indirectly governed by verbs, and they refer to circumstances associated with the verbal process. Review figure 32, p. 158, to see again what we’ll cover here. Non-prepositional Phrase Adverbial Adjunct/Modifier The non-prepositional phrase adverbial adjunct/modifier offers a variety of circumstances associated with the verbal process without a prepositional phrase (PP). The following categories are not exhaustive. Non-PP Adverbial Adjunct/Modifier of State This specifies a state or quality of the subject or the object at the time of the verbal process or in some relation to the process. This adverbial adjunct/modifier is grammatically indefinite and most commonly ¾ an adjective, Here the non-PP AA of state (an adjective) is specifying the state of the subject, NwO#$)rIhf, as it came out.
ynIwOmd:)a NwO#$)rIhf red
)c'0y,'wA
The first one came out with red hair.
the-first and-he-came-out
Genesis 25:25
Here the non-PP AA of state (an adjective) is specifying the state of the direct object, (Aroz%:ha.
hlf#$'b;@
(Aroz@:ha-t)e
boiled
DO-the-shoulder
Nh'ko@ha
xqalfw:
The priest is to take
the-priest and-he-will-take
the shoulder when cooked. Numbers 6:19
¾ a participle, Here the non-PP AA of state (a participle) is specifying the state of the direct object, M(fhf.
hkeb@o crying
M(fhf-t)e h#$em DO-the-people
(ma#$;yI,wA
Moses heard the people crying.
Moses and-he-heard
Numbers 11:10
162
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
¾ or a substantive. dxayF2
w%ps;)fy,"wA
They assembled together.
together and-they-were-assembled
2 Samuel 10:15
#$)ro
K1p;w%#$y: )w%h
head he-will-crush-you
He will crush you on the head.
he
Genesis 3:15
The last example is a non-PP adverbial adjunct/modifier of state and not place (on the head) because the clause conveys that someone will be fatally crushed— crushed to the state of death. Non-PP Adverbial Adjunct/Modifier of Place/Location This specifies the location of the verb’s process, usually without movement. Commonly we see that a preposition is used in Biblical Hebrew for this, as it is in English. When location is conveyed with the use of a preposition, the adverbial adjunct/modifier is a prepositional phrase. When place or location is conveyed without a preposition, however, we are looking at a non-PP adverbial adjunct/modifier of place. Location is here specified without a preposition being used in Biblical Hebrew. When translating into English, we supply a preposition.
b#$'y
)w%hw:
He was sitting at the tent entrance.
the-tent opening-of sitting
and-he
Genesis 18:1
lhe)0ohf
-xtap0e%
hdE#&f%ha
)c'w:
Go out to the field (with motion).
the-field and-you-go-out!
Genesis 27:3
MdF)fhf-t)e DO-the-man
M#$f
M#&ey,F2wA
He placed the man there.
there and-he-placed
Genesis 2:8
Non-PP Adverbial Adjunct/Modifier of Time This specifies the time of the verb’s process or its duration.
163
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
brE(e0
Evening, morning, and noon
and-noon and-morning evening
I cry out in distress.
hxfy#i&)f MyIr0Ah/cfw: I-cry-out
rqeb0owF
Psalm 55:18
l)'rF#&;yI
yn"b@;
w%b#$;y" Myb@irA MymiyF
Israel sons-of they-dwell
many
yk@i
A long time the
days because
Israelites will dwell. Hosea 3:4
Non-PP Adverbial Adjunct/Modifier of Measure This specifies the extent or measure associated with the verbal action. hcfr:)a0
wOtmfwOq
-)lom;
lp%oy,IwA
He fell full length
ground-toward stature-his fullness-of and-he-fell
to the ground. 1 Samuel 28:20
Prepositional Phrase Adverbial Adjunct/Modifier A prepositional phrase is a phrase that begins with a preposition. The preposition governs the other elements in the phrase. The governed elements compose the OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION. A prepositional phrase is thus a preposition and its object. prepositional phrase: Nyb@' is the preposition, MyIm@a0ha is the object of the preposition
MyIm@a0ha
Nyb@'
ld@'b;yA,wA
He divided between the waters.
the-waters between and-he-divided
Genesis 1:7
prepositional phrase: b@ is the preposition, rhf is the object of the preposition direct object
rhfbf@
xbaz e 2 bqo(jyA
on-the-mountain sacrifice
xb@az:y,IwA
Jacob and-he-sacrificed
Jacob offered a sacrifice on the mountain. Genesis 31:54
164
PREDICATE/PREDICATION
Infinitive Clause Adverbial Adjunct/Modifier Infinitive clauses routinely function as the adverbial adjunct/modifier of a verbal process. We have already seen that they also serve as adverbial complements. An infinitive clause functioning as an adverbial adjunct/modifier is conveying more circumstance than the complement. Generally, an infinitive clause is functioning as an adverbial adjunct/modifier when it conveys purpose, result, temporality, and other circumstantial information. Let’s see the two in English. ¾ Infinitive clause as adverbial adjunct/modifier infinitive clause as adverbial adjunct to express purpose within the sentence
David came (in order) to visit Jerusalem. to + infinitive main verb
¾ Infinitive clause as adverbial complement infinitive clause as adverbial complement, a “necessary” complete-ment of wants.
David wants to visit Jerusalem. to + infinitive main verb
Here now is an example of a Biblical Hebrew infinitive clause adverbial adjunct/modifier: infinitive clause as adverbial adjunct to express purpose within the sentence
אתכֵ ם ְ ִל ְק ַר... אמ ִֹרי ֱ ָה
ַויֵּצֵ א
The Amorite ... came out (in order)
to-confront-you the-Amorite and-he-went-out
to confront you. Deuteronomy 1:44
165
SEMANTICS: PROCESSES, ROLES, AND CIRCUMSTANCES
SEMANTICS
PROCESSES, ROLES, AND CIRCUMSTANCES We use language to talk about the real world. Stop and think about it. Many things we experience and understand about the phenomena of our existence we can represent in language, in its linguistic structures. The semantic concepts of PROCESS, ROLE, and CIRCUMSTANCE are categories we can use to help us see how the stuff of the real world meshes with language.22 By process we refer primarily to VERBS. By role we refer primarily to NOUNS/NOMINALS. By circumstance we refer primarily to ADVERBIALS.
SEMANTIC PROCESSES Though we can talk of others, we shall restrict ourselves to three primary semantic processes: (1) material, (2) mental, and (3) relational. MATERIAL = DOING The MATERIAL semantic process is the verbal process of DOING. Here a “do-er” has an impact on a “do-ee,” so to speak. Quite often, the do-er is called the AGENT and the do-ee, the PATIENT. We can, however, be a little more precise. The impact a do-er can have is one of two things. ¾ AFFECTOR–AFFECTED The do-er can AFFECT a do-ee. The do-er is the AFFECTOR; the do-ee is the AFFECTED. The affector and affected exist, and the affector is the catalyst of an action that affects the existing affected. He smashed the idol. Affector (He) — Affected (the idol)
22
For further reading, see M. A. K. Halliday, An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd ed.; London: Arnold, 1994), 109–60.
166
SEMANTICS: PROCESSES, ROLES, AND CIRCUMSTANCES
Both the affector and affected already exist at the time of the verbal process, the smashing. The affector is the catalyst of the smashing that affects the affected. ¾ EFFECTOR–EFFECTED The do-er can EFFECT a do-ee. The do-er is the EFFECTOR; the do-ee is the EFFECTED. The effector is the catalyst of an action that brings something into
existence, the effected. She built the house. Effector (She) — Effected (the house)
She grew grapes. Effector (She) — Effected (grapes)
The effector brings the effected into existence. MENTAL = SENSING The MENTAL semantic process is the verbal process of SENSING. Here a SENSER has affection toward, cognition of, or uses the senses on a PHENOMENON. A senser is one who is able to feel (affection), to think (cognition), or to use the senses (see, hear, smell, etc.). A phenomenon is something about which a senser has feelings (affection) or thoughts (cognition), or on which a senser has used the senses. She loves the man. Senser (She) — Phenomenon (the man) = affection
He remembered the story.
Senser (He) — Phenomenon (the story) = cognition
Eli heard Hannah’s crying. Senser (Eli) — Phenomenon (Hannah’s crying) = use of a sense
167
SEMANTICS: PROCESSES, ROLES, AND CIRCUMSTANCES
RELATIONAL = BEING The RELATIONAL semantic process is the verbal process of BEING. We can talk of two types of relational processes. ¾ CARRIER–ATTRIBUTE = ATTRIBUTIVE A CARRIER carries an ATTRIBUTE. The book is nonsense. Carrier (The book) — Attribute (nonsense)
The apple seems green. Carrier (The apple) — Attribute (green)
The verbs tend to be an ascriptive/descriptive type. Here is a list of common verbs that convey an attributive semantic process. become, turn (into), grow (into) = inception remain, stay (as) = duration seem, appear, qualify as, turn out, end up (as) = appearance look, sound, smell, feel, taste (like) = sense perception be, feel = neutral ¾ IDENTIFIED–IDENTIFIER = IDENTIFYING An IDENTIFIED is assigned identity by an IDENTIFIER. You are the first person on earth. Identified (You) — Identifier (the first person on earth)
The verbs tend to be an equative type. Here is a list of common verbs that convey an identifying semantic process. play, act as, function as, serve as = role mean, indicate, suggest, imply, show, mark, reflect = sign
168
SEMANTICS: PROCESSES, ROLES, AND CIRCUMSTANCES
equal, add up to, make = equation comprise, feature, include = kind/part represent, constitute, form = significance exemplify, illustrate = example express, signify, realize, spell, stand for, mean = symbol be, become, remain = neutral
SEMANTIC ROLES We have already been talking about semantic ROLES/PARTICIPANTS. We had to use this concept to talk about verbal processes in the last section. The concept of semantic roles or participants focuses on nouns/nominals in clauses and their relations to each other. We can divide roles/participants into those that occur as the syntactic subject of a clause and those that occur in the predicate. The chart below lists some common roles/participants in a clause. Subject Roles
Predicate Roles
Affector
Affected
Effector
Effected
Senser
Phenomenon
Carrier
Attribute
Identified
Identifier
Processed Beneficiary Figure 33: Semantic Roles
In the previous section we saw examples of the roles listed in the first five rows. We need to understand the remaining roles. Processed: role/participant that undergoes a process: The apple fell.
169
SEMANTICS: PROCESSES, ROLES, AND CIRCUMSTANCES
Beneficiary: role/participant as recipient of a benefit—positive or negative— from an action or a state/condition: He asked you for a favor for himself. I gave him the ball.
SEMANTIC CIRCUMSTANCES Circumstances can surround verbal processes and roles/participants. English and Biblical Hebrew convey these circumstances primarily through ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS/MODIFIERS (see ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT/MODIFIER, p. 162). What follows are some of the common groupings of circumstances along with common structures used by English to convey the circumstance. 1) Circumstance of Extent (including interval) a) Distance (spatial) structure: noun (with modifier): He traveled many miles. b) Duration (temporal) structure: noun (with modifier): He slept five days / a long time. 2) Location a) Place (spatial) structure: adverb: He lives here/there. structure: prepositional phrase: He lives in Galilee. b) Time (temporal) structure: adverb/noun (with modifier): He left recently / a long time ago. structure: prepositional phrase: He left at noon. 3) Manner a) Means: means whereby a process takes place structure: prepositional phrase: He fixed it with rope. b) Quality: characterizes the process structure: adverbs: It rained heavily. She spoke more calmly. c) Comparison structure: adverb: Aaron speaks differently. structure: prepositional phrase: Her eyes are like doves. 4) Cause a) Reason: what causes a process 170
SEMANTICS: PROCESSES, ROLES, AND CIRCUMSTANCES
structure: prepositional phrase: through, because of, etc.: They sang because of the rain. b) Purpose: intention behind a process structure: prepositional phrase: for, for the purpose of: They gave up land for peace. c) Behalf: who is it for? structure: prepositional phrase: for, on behalf of: I’m writing for / on behalf of Jeremiah.
5) Contingency a) Condition structure: prepositional phrase: in the case of, in the event of: In the event of fire, use water. structure: particle/conjunction: if, unless: Unless we have water, we’ll die. b) Concession: a circumstance conceded or granted or acknowledged structure: prepositional phrase: in spite of: They stoned him in spite of his absence. structure: particle/conjunction: although, though: Though big, he was still defeated. c) Default structure: prepositional phrase: in the absence of: In the absence of evidence, they let her go. 6) Accompaniment a) Comitative: a process represented as a single instance of a process Positive: Moses and Aaron went together. Moses went with Aaron. Negative: Moses went without Aaron. b) Additive: a process represented as two or more instances Positive: Moses went as well as Aaron. Negative: Moses went instead of Aaron. 7) Role a) Guise: what as? He was confirmed as high priest. b) Product: what into? (what did it become?) He became high priest. He grew into a man.
171
SEMANTICS: PROCESSES, ROLES, AND CIRCUMSTANCES
Roles/Participants
Processes Material = doing
Affector–Affected Effector–Effected
Mental = sensing
Senser–Phenomenon
Relational Attributing
Circumstances Extent Distance: He traveled many miles. Duration: She traveled many days. Location Place:
Carrier–Attribute
Time: Identified–Identifier
Identifying
He lives there. (adverb) She lives in Jerusalem. (PP) She left recently. (adverb) He left at noon. (PP)
Manner Means: He fixed it with mud brick. Quality: It rained heavily. Comparison: Elijah speaks differently.
Illustrations of Processes & Roles He smashed the idol.
Cause Reason: They sang because of the rain. Purpose: He gave up land for peace. Behalf: We’re writing on behalf of the king.
Affector (He) — Affected (the idol)
She built the house. She grew grapes. Effector (She) — Effected (the house; grapes)
Eli heard Hannah’s crying.
Contingency Condition: In the event of fire, don’t . . . Concession: He ran though he was tired. Default: In the absence of an agreement, we will go back to our towns.
Senser (Eli) — Phenomenon (Hannah’s crying)
Accompaniment Comitative: David and Jonathan went together.
The letter is nonsense.
Additive: David went as well as Jonathan.
Carrier (the letter) — Attribute (nonsense)
You are the first person on earth.
Role Guise: She was confirmed as a prophet. Product: He grew into a man.
Identified (you) — Identifier (the first person on earth)
Figure 34: Overview of Common Processes, Roles, and Circumstances
172
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS When we talk about DISCOURSE in linguistics, we are not usually referring to conversation or speech. The term refers more commonly to “chunks” of text and has in mind a level of language beyond looking at one clause isolated from another.23 Discourse analysis, in short, takes seriously the notion of CONTEXT: (1) context in the one sense of the interrelation of words on a page, and (2) context in the sense of space and time—a language exchange or storytelling does not occur in a vacuum. More specifically, discourse analysis notices the interplay of story and discourse, concepts I discuss below. It tracks indicators of time, location, and what a text is about, that is, topicality. It takes note of what is an unmarked and a marked way to write—more on that below. A little more technical definition is that discourse analysis is, in part, the interface of syntax, linguistic semantics, and linguistic pragmatics. Take a look at a photograph of a family member or friend. You are looking at that person, but yet you are not. You are looking at a representation. A portrait presents little trouble for us in that respect. We know that it represents a person though it is two-dimensional and almost never true to life in size and color. We recognize that a portrait is not real. If poked, it will not yelp. If stabbed, it will not bleed. Writing is representation. David and Goliath in the narrative writing known as 1 Samuel are not real people any more than a self-portrait of Vincent van Gogh is really or actually van Gogh. In saying that, however, I am not here judging whether David and Goliath actually existed any more than I am calling into question whether van Gogh really lived. David and Goliath in writing are not people, actual objects of genetics, but personae, objects of poetics and things linguistic. Discourse analysis understands that text is representation.
23
Much of this chapter first appeared in my article “The Written Story: Toward Understanding Text as Representation and Function,” Vetus Testamentum 49 (1999): 165–85.
173
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
1. STORY AND DISCOURSE When it comes to representing, I have found it helpful to follow a distinction made by Seymour Chatman between STORY and DISCOURSE, whether representing through written page or cinema.24 If you were writing a novel, the story would be the conceptual content in your head—the plot, the characters, settings—before you wrote it down, and it would include the conceptual content that never gets written. The discourse of that novel, however, would be the actual book I pick up to read. In the case of a person’s life—your life, for example—if somebody wanted to tell others about it in written form, the story of your life would begin at your birth and would go from there day by day. The story would be your actual life. The discourse—the words put onto a written page in this case—however, may begin by writing about what you are doing this moment, then flash back to various periods in your lifetime and rearrange them.
2. STORY HAPPENINGS AND DISCOURSE The story, in the technical sense I am using it here, is developed in part by HAPPENINGS, that is, fientive events. When reading the Hebrew Bible (or any text), we should keep in mind that the discourse we are reading is only a representation of a story. 2.1 STORY-PRESENT, STORY-PAST, AND STORY-FUTURE Discourse-level representation presents perspective I label STORY-PRESENT, STORYPAST, and STORY-FUTURE. Story-present represents the happenings that are “at hand” in the discourse. Narrative story-past refers to perspective that is before the happenings that are “at hand” in the discourse. First Samuel 1 begins by describing happenings and STORY-EXISTENTS25 that are anterior to the happenings that take place on that one particular pilgrimage where Eli confronts Hannah, which is the story-present. Narrative story-future refers to perspective that is 24
Seymour Chatman, Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978).
25
Story-existents are those story components that exist: settings, state of being, characters (apart from their actions), etc.
174
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
posterior to the “at hand” happenings. If, for example, I read, “Three years later Molly would discover that she had been speaking to her husband’s murderer, but now she knew nothing,” I have read story-future juxtaposed with story-present. The discourse is free to rearrange the order of the actual story happenings—the present may be juxtaposed with its past or future—and is free to spend less or more time on a story happening than would be the time for a happening to occur in real life. Time relations of (1) order and (2) duration thus exist between story happenings and discourse. 2.2 ORDER Discourse may rearrange story happenings. The discourse preserved as Isaiah 36– 39 does not chronologically follow the story happenings, the actual events. Chapters 36–37 center on Sennacherib’s campaign in 701 B.C.E., while 38–39 center on Hezekiah’s illness and a Babylonian envoy ca. 714–711 B.C.E. 2.3 DURATION Duration refers, following Chatman,26 to the relation of the time it takes to read out a discourse compared to the time the story happenings lasted or would last. 2.3.1 Summary Duration may, first, be summary. Here, discourse is significantly briefer than story-time; it compresses story-time by days, weeks, months, years, and lifetimes. Genesis 4:17 reads, “Cain knew his wife, she conceived and bore Enoch; he built a city.” You spent no more than five seconds to read something that would take a major part of a lifetime to achieve. Throughout the book of Kings one often reads a summary that a certain king ruled over Israel/Judah for a certain number of years. Again, the discourse takes five seconds to read but represents a lifetime in story-time. 2.3.2 Ellipsis In ellipsis, discourse halts while story-time continues. Between Genesis 50:26, “Joseph died . . . and was embalmed and placed in a coffin in Egypt,” and Exodus 1:8, “Now a new king arose over Egypt,” many story happenings have been
26
Chatman, Story and Discourse, 67–78.
175
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
gapped. Among those who assume some historicity here, many think Joseph could have attained his rank in the Delta under the Hyksos (Dynasty 15) or under lesser Asiatic dynasts (Dynasty 16). Hyksos influence seems to have extended from its apparent origins in the eastern Delta to the western half, where it dominated the Xioite Dynasty (14), advancing through a good portion of Egypt. Dissatisfaction among the Thebans with such a division of Egyptian kingship led to the eventual demise of the Hyksos, their expulsion being effected by Ahmose. With him the New Kingdom was established. The new king mentioned in Exodus could have belonged to this New Kingdom, so some think. None of these momentous events, known by every student of ancient Egyptian history, is discoursed in the Bible. 2.3.3 Discourse-Time = Story-Time In discourse-time = story-time, reading the discourse or text is approximate in time to what it would take for the actual situation. I mentioned above that summary representation significantly truncates story-time. Discourse-time = storytime, however, represents an almost precise match in time, in the case of dialogue between characters, or, at most, the compression of only a few moments. 2.3.4 Stretch Stretch is where discourse-time is longer than story-time. In cinema this is slow motion. In recent years, a number of movies have exploited stretch effectively. The Matrix series; Hero; Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon; and Inception (the van falling from the bridge) have thrilled us with their super-slow motion. As an example in written discourse, we may look at Jael’s killing of Sisera in the Deborah and Barak discourse preserved in Judges 4–5. In the narrative portion, Judges 4:21, the writer represents the action in discoursetime = story-time; we read of Jael driving the tent peg through Sisera in the approximate amount of time as it may have taken in real life:
176
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
“But Jael wife of Heber took a tent peg, and took a hammer in her hand, and went quietly to him and drove the peg through his mouth27 until it went down into the ground—he was lying fast asleep from weariness—and he died.” The poetic representation of this happening, found in Judges 5:26–27, is repetitive in relation to the narrative one: “She put her hand to the tent peg and her right hand to the mallet; she hammered a blow to Sisera, she struck his head, she hit and pierced his (open) mouth. He sank, he fell, he lay still at her feet; at her feet he sank, he fell; where he sank, there he fell dead.” The discourse here, in a sense, is slower than the narrative representation. It is the written equivalent of cinematic slow motion; it is s-t-r-e-t-c-h-e-d. 2.3.5 Pause In pause, story-time stops but discourse continues. Here is where the writer describes people, scenes, and the like—things that are story-existents.
3. DISCOURSE AS THE FUNCTION OF SYNTAX, SEMANTICS, AND PRAGMATICS When working with discourse, you must realize that the functions of syntax, linguistic semantics, and pragmatics merge together in written representation. Truly grasping the conveyance of meaning comes by understanding the interrelation of these functions for a particular language. Syntactic functions (subject, adverbial complements and adjuncts/modifiers, etc.) articulate relationships and positions within a particular linguistic syntagm (that is, a string of words). Semantic functions specify, in part, the meaning(s) of lexical items (lexical semantics) and roles that referents may have (agent, patient, goal, manner, instrument, beneficiary, etc.). Pragmatic functions specify the informational status of part of a clause in relation to its wider contextual setting. This last function, pragmatics, affirms that natural language is carried out by 27
The Hebrew word here translated as “mouth,” which is usually translated “temple [of the forehead],” is a rare and difficult word to understand; for “mouth” see M. Rozelaar, “An Unrecognized Part of the Human Anatomy,” Judaism 37 (1988): 97–101, and Gary Long, “qxm,” in New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis (ed. W. VanGemeren; 5 vols.; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997), 2:921–22.
177
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
embedded humans, embedded in place and time. Language and language study, therefore, cannot be separated from humanity and human processes. In the subsections that follow, I talk more about some of the major notions or ingredients that comprise discourse analysis.28 In §3.4 below, we shall see these ingredients at work in specific examples. 3.1 TOPIC/TOPICALITY A discourse is about something. It may, in fact, be about many things. This book, for example, is about basic grammatical concepts, this chapter is about discourse analysis, and this subsection is about topicality. TOPIC or TOPICALITY in pragmatics considers what an expression may be about, whether that expression is a whole discourse or an individual clause. We are really concerned here with COHERENCE, the conceptual or emic (see under LINGUISTIC HIERARCHIES, p. 3) notion of connectivity within a story and its discourse. Related to coherence is COHESION, a label that refers to the physically present (= etic) discourse features involved in bringing connectivity. For discourse to be coherent, it interacts with REFERENCE FRAMES (RF), any etic or conceptual (= emic) referent to which a discourse may refer. A reference frame may be real,29 irreal,30 physically present, or absent31 in a discourse. A discourse may have many referents or reference frames: one character, several characters, one happening, several happenings, etc. A reference frame may become a topic within a discourse. A coherent discourse must first introduce these topics—a NEW topic. Once a topic has been introduced and remains the topic, we can call it a GIVEN or ACTIVE topic. A topic that has not been mentioned for some time and is revived or reintroduced is a RESUMED topic.
28
For further reading, see Simon C. Dik, The Theory of Functional Grammar, Part 1: The Structure of the Clause (2nd, revised ed.; ed. Kees Hengeveld; Functional Grammar Series 20; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1997).
29
That is, a reference frame may refer to phenomena that are part of the world as we understand it.
30
That is, a reference frame may refer to imaginary phenomena.
31
For example, the utterance “Please, start walking” may have a linguistically absent RF (reference frame) of people hurriedly wanting to leave a location.
178
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
3.2 FOCUS/FOCALITY FOCUS, or FOCALITY, another feature in pragmatics, attaches importance or saliency to a reference frame. A reference frame—usually a word or phrase—that is in focus is one that is informationally prominent or most salient. 3.3 MARKEDNESS In language we can talk of marked features and unmarked ones: MARKEDNESS and UNMARKEDNESS—elements that fall under the scope of linguistic pragmatics. If I say “Nehemiah examined Jerusalem on his mount” in normal intonation, I have likely expressed an unmarked English syntagm, that is, a string of words. The syntax, semantics, and pragmatic features of that expression are likely normal or most typical. If, however, I say “Nehemiah examined Jerusalem on his mount” with high-falling intonation on mount, I’ve expressed a marked syntagm, denoting that Nehemiah examined Jerusalem on mount, not by foot or by being carried. The syntax is the same. The semantic functions and meanings of the words are unchanged. The distinction between the two expressions, though, is a pragmatics feature. I could also say “On his mount Nehemiah examined Jerusalem” with a change in syntax, the fronting of “on his mount” along with high intonation to mark the expression. We could in fact play that children’s game of repeating the same expression while intonating a different word each time: Nehemiah examined Jerusalem on his mount; Nehemiah examined . . . ; Nehemiah examined Jerusalem . . . ; etc. Each time, you are expressing something meaningfully different. Within discourse, markedness may be achieved, in part, through (1) quantity of information and (2) order or arrangement.32 3.3.1 Quantity of Information Let’s look first at quantity of information to denote markedness and also restrict ourselves here to written discourse. QUANTITY-markedness may be achieved syntactically by the length of a clause. Longer syntagms seem to be used for
32
R. D. Bergen, “Text as a Guide to Authorial Intention: An Introduction to Discourse Criticism,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 30 (1987): 327–36.
179
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
markedness in Exodus 12:29, while short, staccato-like clauses, too, may be used for markedness, particularly to mark a high point or climax of a story. Within a large discourse, the overall length of a particular episode in relation to ones surrounding it may mark it as atypical within the immediate textual environment. The episode preserved as Genesis 1:24–31 is more than twice the length of each of the previous five;33 that text calls out to us to say, “I am marked, I am particularly important.” An important factor in deriving what is likely quantity-marked in a particular textual environment is taking note of what seems to be common in the immediate textual environment. 3.3.2 Order of Information ORDER-markedness may be achieved through word order in clauses—syntax. Paying attention to something as simple as whether, for example, a clause’s predicate comes before or after a subject is an important initial step. In Biblical Hebrew, outside of clauses that convey PAST-TIME NARRATIVE, predicates tend to come after subjects, so-called S(ubject)–P(redicate) syntax. In a written text where we have no oral clues or other modern conventions such as capital letters, bold, or italics, the beginning of a clause is vitally important as one way of perceiving markedness within and among main clauses. The narrator’s “voice,” so to speak, or narrator’s frame in Biblical Hebrew pasttime narrative shows two main or nonsubordinating syntactic clause types. ¾ Clauses initiated with so-called vav-consecutive plus Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation—vayyiqtol clauses ¾ Clauses not initiated with vav-consecutive plus Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation—non-vayyiqtol clauses Keep in mind that we are talking now only about a narrow but heavily used genre, past-time narrative, and, within that genre, only about the narrator’s frame. VAYYIQTOL and NON-VAYYIQTOL seem to be the broadest and most helpful labels 33
Genesis 1:1–5 (52 words); 1:6–8 (38 words); 1:9–13 (69 words); 1:14–19 (69 words); 1:20–23 (57 words). Genesis 1:24–31 has 149 words.
180
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
for Biblical Hebrew under which we can subsume all the syntactic phenomena within the past-time narrator’s frame. The vayyiqtol clause appears to be the linguistically unmarked or normative clausal structure that, in general, pushes along the plot. The non-vayyiqtol clause appears to be a marked syntagm. Markedness, though, may have a higher or lower value depending on the overall frequency of what is identified as a marked pattern. Within Jonah, excluding the poem (2:3–10), non-vayyiqtol clauses comprise only 8% of the main clauses within the narrator’s frame. Within the narrator’s frame of the past-time narrative portions of the Joseph discourse (Genesis 37–50), only 22% of main clauses are non-vayyiqtol. The low occurrence of nonvayyiqtol syntagms in those texts affirms the markedness status of the nonvayyiqtol syntagms in those particular texts. In a discourse where the ratio approaches parity with the vayyiqtol, the markedness value of the non-vayyiqtol should likely be considered quite diminished. One must be sensitive to the data to be discovered in a given discourse. One must look carefully for markedness and unmarkedness in text. What I am saying in practice, then, is that noting the constituent(s) at the beginning of clauses is important for perceiving order-markedness within and among main clauses. I’ll return to this below, under §4. 3.4 MARKEDNESS FOR FOCUS AND CONNECTIVITY Markedness may convey pragmatic FOCUS, again, the salient or prominent pragmatic information in a clause. It also plays an important role in a discourse’s connectivity (coherence and cohesion). Sometimes a discourse, within its clausal structures, marks a clausal element or constituent that serves as a reference frame for guiding the Recipient in tracking how clauses cohere or are grouped together: a) Nehemiah examined Jerusalem on his mount. b) On his mount Nehemiah examined Jerusalem. In both (a) and (b) the notion ‘mount’ is a reference frame (as is ‘Nehemiah’, ‘Jerusalem’, ‘examine’, plus potentially a host of absent reference frames). In (a) the reference frame represented in the phrase “on his mount” is unmarked, syntactically being placed in a normative position for English and without stressed intonation. In (b), however, the reference frame, represented in a fronted position 181
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
within the clause, is marked. A MARKED COHESION REFERENCE FRAME (MCRF) is a label to refer to this kind of marked clausal constituent. Since a reference frame may or may not be explicitly mentioned in a discourse, the use of cohesion in the label refers to a reference frame being a linguistic constituent explicitly mentioned in the discourse. These notions of focus and MCRF are here illustrated: ¾ Nehemiah examined Jerusalem on his mount. The last example was unmarked; it was normative English. All the following examples, however, are marked in some way. ¾ Nehemiah examined Jerusalem on his mount [focus]. [high-falling intonation on “mount” to mark prominent information] ¾ It was on his mount [focus] that Nehemiah examined Jerusalem. [cleft clause construction and high intonation to mark prominent information] ¾ On his mount [focus] Nehemiah examined Jerusalem. [fronting of the prepositional phrase and high intonation to mark prominent information] ¾ On his mount [MCRF] Nehemiah examined Jerusalem. [normal intonation on fronted prepositional phrase; the fronted phrase—a marked construction—could here be presenting MCRF; Nehemiah’s mount could have been mentioned previously and is important somehow for discourse coherence apart from being particularly prominent] ¾ On his mount [focus + MCRF overlay] Nehemiah examined Jerusalem. [fronting of the prepositional phrase and high intonation to mark prominent information (as in the previous example), plus a speaker or writer might want to convey MCRF; Nehemiah’s mount could have been mentioned previously and is important somehow for discourse coherence]
182
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
3.4.1 Types of Focus34 Focus refers to the salient or prominent pragmatic information in a clause. It concerns the changes that a Sender (speaker or writer) wants to make in the Recipient’s pragmatic information. Focus can be achieved, as I demonstrated in part in the preceding section, through (a) prosody (e.g., intonation), (b) syntax, whether a special initial position within a clause or a special syntactic construction (e.g., a cleft construction), and (c) special focus-marking words or particles. In using focus, the Sender may want to (1) fill in an assumed gap of information or (2) make a contrast. The first, INFORMATION GAP FOCUS, may entail (1a)
Questioning Focus, where the Sender will ask a question: What did you do to Jerusalem’s walls? [focus marked with wh-interrogative construction]
(1b)
Completive Focus, where the Sender attempts to fill in an assumed information gap: I repaired them. [focus marked with intonation]
CONTRAST FOCUS may comprise (2a)
Parallel Focus, which usually highlights simultaneous or concurrent phenomena: The Philistines prepared for war; Saul and the Israelites also prepared for battle.
(2b)
34
Counter-presuppositional Focus, which embraces several more specific functions: (i)
Rejecting Focus (not A): David killed Ammonites. No, he didn’t kill Ammonites.
(ii)
Replacing Focus (not A, but B): David killed Ammonites. No, he killed Jebusites.
For further reading, see Dik, Theory of Functional Grammar, 309–38.
183
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
(iii)
Expanding Focus (also B): David killed Ammonites. He not only killed Ammonites, he killed Jebusites.
(iv)
Restricting Focus (only B): David killed Ammonites and Jebusites. No, he killed only Jebusites.
(v)
Selecting Focus (A or B? B!): Did David kill Ammonites or Jebusites? Jebusites.
3.4.2 Types of MCRFs An MCRF, by definition, is a reference frame that is pragmatically marked. A NewMCRF introduces a new referent. Once a referent has been introduced and finds itself marked, it can be considered GivenMCRF or ActiveMCRF. ResumptiveMCRF refers to a referent that has not been mentioned for some time and is revived or reintroduced in a marked fashion.
4. A MARKEDNESS APPROACH TO BIBLICAL HEBREW PAST-TIME NARRATIVE In a written text where we have no oral clues or other modern conventions such as capital letters, bold, or italics (which I have likely overused in this chapter), the beginning of a clause is vitally important as one way of perceiving markedness within and among main clauses. I have started by observing clause-level syntactic phenomena. These observations have informed what I have concluded about their functions at the discourse level. Form and function continually interact. An interpreter of any text, and especially of the Bible, needs to bring this aspect of investigation into the process. Understanding how a discourse brings something into focus or tracks topics goes to the core of understanding a text. It ought to be a foundation of exegesis. Basic translation, in fact, needs to convey these meaningful elements appropriately, but it seldom does. 4.1 THE VAYYIQTOL 4.1.1 The vayyiqtol as Unmarked Mainline When, and it is hardly always the case, but when the vayyiqtol clause denotes happenings and pushes along the narrative plot, I consider the label MAINLINE of the story useful. The label “mainline” seems to describe appropriately the vayyiqtol clause’s common function of pushing along an episode and, more
184
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
broadly, a plot. Vayyiqtol mainline may represent a variety of happening-types. I highlight three as illustrative. 4.1.1.1 Mainline Linear/Subsequent Happenings The plot may be pushed along by happenings expressed in a linear or subsequent fashion, i.e., action A, then action B, then action C, and on like that. The subsequence may be either temporal or logical. For example, 1 Samuel 17:49. 49a
ylik@e0ha-l)e the-bag
to
wOdyF-t)e DO-hand-his
Nbe)e0
49b
dwId@F
xla#$;y,IwA
David and-he-sent
M#$%fmi
xq@ay,IwA
stone from-there then-he-took
(l@aqay:wA
49c
then-he-slung
49d
wOxc;mi-l)e brow-his
to
yt@i#$;lip%;ha-t)e
K7y,awA
DO-the-Philistine
then-he-struck
David put his hand into the shepherd’s bag and took out a stone. He hurled it with a sling and struck the Philistine on his brow. 1 Samuel 17:49 4.1.1.2 Mainline Cluster Happenings Not all mainline, of course, is linear or subsequent. Two or more vayyiqtol clauses may cluster with a view to a single happening. One particular type concerns the Biblical Hebrew verbal roots that, while being syntactically analyzable as vayyiqtols in main clauses and initiating a mainline clause, seem semantically to modify or offer a comment on a following vayyiqtol: PsewOy2,wA, rh'may:wA, b#$fy2F,wA, Mk'#$;y,awA, etc. Consider, for example, the following clauses. MhfrFb;)a
Psey,o2wA
Abraham and-he-added
h#$%f)i
xq@ay,IwA
woman and-he-took
Abraham married another woman. Genesis 25:1 Such syntagms particularly highlight the difficulty of defining the concept of clause, to say nothing of sentence, in Biblical Hebrew. Should we say that the
185
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
syntagm h#$%f)i xq@ay,iwA MhfrFb;)a Psey2,owA is two independent/root clauses or one complex/extended clause? 4.1.1.3 Mainline Simultaneous Happenings Two or more vayyiqtol clauses may represent nearly simultaneous happenings. For example, Genesis 45:2: ykib;b@i
wOlqo-t)e
Nt@'y,IwA
in-crying
DO-voice-his
and-he-gave
2a
MyIrA0c;mi
2b
w%(m;#$;y,IwA
Egyptians and-they-heard
h(or:p%a
2c
tyb'@
(ma#$;y,IwA
Pharaoh house-of and-it-heard
He [Joseph] cried so loudly that the Egyptians heard him and the news got as far as Pharaoh’s palace. Genesis 45:2 4.1.2 The vayyiqtol as Sideline/Exposition The vayyiqtol commonly functions to discourse a story’s mainline, yet it may also denote something we can label SIDELINE or EXPOSITION. In written etic discourse, which is, after all, a linear string of syntagms, one may need to “break off” in order to “enflesh” a character, describe a setting, etc. Such discourse interruption clearly aligns itself with the nature of the broad phenomenon known as exposition in plot development. In Biblical Hebrew past-time narrative, it continually interjects into the plot. The episode concerning Jericho, Rahab, and the spies offers insight. 3a
rmo)l' bxfrF-l)e wOxyrIy: saying Rahab
xla#$;y,IwA
to Jericho king-of and-he-sent
3b 4a
K7leme0
“. . .” (Direct Speech) My#i$nF)/hf yn'#$;-t)e the-men
DO-two-of
h#$%f)ihf
xq@at@iwA
the-woman and-she-took
wOnp%;c;t@iwA
4b
and-she-hid-him
rme)t0o@wA
4c
and-she-said
186
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
4d
“. . .” (Direct Speech)
5
“. . .” (Direct Speech continues) hgFg2F%ha
6a
Mtal0f(vhe
)yhiw:
the-roof-toward she-took-them and-she
gg%Fha-l(a
6b
the-roof
h@lf
twOkru(jhf
C('hf yt@'#$;pib@;
Mn'm;+;t@iwA
on by-her the-arranged the-stalks in-flax-of and-she-hid-them
3
The king of Jericho sent an order to Rahab, “. . . .” 4The woman had taken the two men and had hidden them. She replied, “. . . .” 6Now she herself had taken them up to the roof and had hidden them in the flax stalks arranged by her on the roof. Joshua 2:3–6 Clause 6b, initiated by a vayyiqtol, seems hardly to function on the mainline. Instead, the clause describes a happening after the happening described in 6a, a non-vayyiqtol exposition clause (see §4.2.2.1.1 below), seemingly marked for Completive Focus or Selecting Focus with GivenMCRF overlay (since Rahab is speaking just prior to 6a)—“Now she herself had taken them up . . . and had hidden them. . . .” High intonation falls on )yhi “she.” The translation I offer tries to convey the same meaning of the markedness of the Hebrew (by using “now” and “herself,” plus the high intonation). Another example, though less certain, is in v. 4. This verse seems to be an initial reference to the hiding-happening in v. 6, which we just considered. The king has sent a message to Rahab. As we read v. 3b, are we reading along in the discourse at a point when the message is being read directly to Rahab, or are we simply being informed of the contents of the message? If the king’s officials are conveying the message directly to Rahab in v. 3b, then her response is reported in vv. 4d–5. The clauses 4a–b, then, could be understood as representing a storypast happening (note RSV “But the woman had taken the two men and hidden them” [emphasis mine]); they could be here functioning as vayyiqtol as sideline/exposition. The direct speech in v. 3, however, could represent the officials’ message outside Rahab’s dwelling, before a face-to-face encounter, Rahab simultaneously scrambling to hide the spies before replying. More certain is that the hiding-happening, which likely functions as sideline or exposition, is
187
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
conveyed in an unmarked fashion in v. 4a–b, while the same happening begins with marked representation in v. 6a. 4.2 THE NON-VAYYIQTOL I said earlier that the non-vayyiqtol clause appears to be a marked construction, in part, for focus and/or MCRF phenomena. The clause-type may push along the plot or, more commonly, interrupt it, as it were. 4.2.1 The Non-vayyiqtol as Marked Mainline I believe mainline is perhaps best traced through the FIENTIVE happenings, that is, happenings that convey action, activity, and dynamism. The non-vayyiqtol marked mainline, then, is likely to be found represented by X-QATAL clauses, that is, clauses that begin with something other than a verb, which is then followed by a fientive Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation verb (referred to as qatal). 1 Samuel 17:1– 2 is illustrative. hmfxfl;mi@la Mheyn'xjma-t)e Myt@i#$;lip;
1a
for-the-war
DO-camps-their
hdFw%hyli r#$e)j
1b
to-Judah which
1c
Mym@id@a spe)0eb@; hqfz'(j Dammim
Philistines and-they-gathered
hko#&
w%ps;)fy",wA
Socoh and-they-were-assembled
-Nyb'w% hkowO#&
in-Efes Azeqah and-between
-Nyb@'
they-assembled
hlf)'hf
2b
w%nxjy,AwA
Socoh between and-they-camped
w%ps;)enE l)'rF#&;yI
2a
w%ps;)ay,AwA
-#$y)iw: lw%)#$fw:
Israel and-man-of and-Saul
qme(0'b;@
w%nxjy,AwA
the-Elah in-valley-of and-they-camped
2c
Myt@i#$;lip%; t)rAq;li hmfxfl;mi Philistines
to-meet
w%kr:(ay,AwA
battle and-they-arranged
The Philistines prepared for war. They assembled against Socoh, which belonged to Judah, camping at Efes-Dammim between Socoh and Azeqah. Saul and Israel’s army gathered, too, set up camp at Elah Valley, and drew up battle lines opposite the Philistine army. 1 Samuel 17:1–2 Clause 2a, though non-vayyiqtol, hardly functions as story exposition or sideline. Notice formally that 2a is X-qatal in a textual environment of five fientive 188
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
vayyiqtol clauses. Here the non-vayyiqtol clause 2a in an X-qatal format seems to mark focus and MCRF phenomena. Clause 2a likely functions as Parallel Focus, the parallel actions of Saul and the army being made particularly salient juxtaposed to what the Philistines were doing. As for textual coherence, if one looks only at this particular episode initiated at 17:1, clause 2a introduces NewMCRF— Saul is being newly introduced into this particular episode, which has earmarks of being more originally a self-contained story. If we keep the broader canonical story in mind, Saul, as a character, is being reactivated, ResumptiveMCRF. Clause 2a likely denotes MCRF with focus overlay. Aurally, we might have heard high intonation from an ancient reader or storyteller on l)'rF#&;yI-#$y)iw: lw%)#$fw: “SAUL and ISRAEL’S ARMY.” The two main clauses in Joshua 2:7 comprise two further examples: 7a
twOrb@;(;m@aha l(a the-fords
7b
Mheyr"xj)a
Nd@'r:y,Aha K7rEd@e0 Mheyr"xj)a
to the-Jordan way-of
Mypid:rohf
My#$inF)jhfw:
after-them they-pursued and-the-men
w%)c;yF r#$e)jk@a yr"xj)a
after-them the-pursuers they-exited
w%pd:rF
when
w%rg2Fsf
r(a#0$%ahaw:
after they-closed and-the-gate
So those men pursued them along the Jordan road toward the fords. The gate was then closed as soon as the pursuit group left. Joshua 2:7 The markedness of clause 7a, where the reference frame ‘men’, represented by the word My#$inF)jhf, is placed before the fientive Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation verb, appears to convey ActiveMCRF. The syntactic direct object r(a#$%a0ha placed before the fientive Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation verb in clause 7b likely conveys a type of focus more than an MCRF, though a ‘closed gate’ reference frame could lend connectivity to why the spies leave the city through a window (v. 15). 4.2.2 The Non-vayyiqtol as Sideline/Exposition The non-vayyiqtol is more commonly the stuff of sideline or exposition. I think it is helpful to maintain that non-vayyiqtol exposition may reflect (1) action and (2) non-action. 4.2.2.1 The Non-vayyiqtol as Sideline/Exposition Action Exposition that reflects action and activity is presented in at least three different syntactic arrangements: (1) X–V clauses, (2) verb-initial clauses, and (3) verbless
189
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
clauses with verbal participles (see the section VERBAL PARTICIPLE, p. 91). The verbal forms denote fientivity. 4.2.2.1.1 X–V Clauses Clauses are commonly X–V (words that are not verbs followed by a verb), with the clause containing a fientive verbal form. NrFxfm'
4c
wOt)c'b@; hnF#$f
from-Haran in-exiting-his
My(ib;#i$w: MynI#$f #$m'xf
year and-seventy
years
-Nb@e
MrFb;)aw:
five son-of and-Abram
Now Abram was seventy-five years old when he left Haran. Genesis 12:4 We may revisit Joshua 2:6, cited above under §4.1.2, where attention was on v. 6b. Clause 6a, though, is an X–V clause containing a fientive Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation, hgFg2F%ha Mtalf0(vhe )yhiw:, “Now she herself had taken them up to the roof.” Its function is to provide story-past information, telling the reader what Rahab herself had done likely before she ever began talking with the officials. 4.2.2.1.2 Verb-Initial Clauses Clauses can be verb-initial, where the verbal form is a vav-consecutive + fientive Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation. vav-consecutive + Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation
hmfymi0yF
3a
Mymiy,Fmi
wOry(im'
)w%hha #$y)ihf
hlf(fw:
days-toward from-days from-city-his the-that the-man and-he-goes-up
hlo#$ib@; twO)bfc; hwhyl in-Shiloh
hwhyla MynIhjk%o
3b
to-YHWH
xAb@oz:liw: twOxjt@a#$;hil;
hosts to-YHWH and-to-sacrifice
sxfn;piw%
ynIp;xf yli('
priests and-Pinhas Hophni
-yn"b;
yn"#$;
to-worship
M#$fw:
Eli sons-of two-of and-there
MwOy,ha
4a
yhiy:wA
the-day and-it-was
hnFqfl;)e
4b
xb@az:y,iwA
Elqanah and-he-sacrificed
4c
מָ נוֹת
ָנוֹתיה ֶ ֫ וּב ְ
ָבָּ ֫ ֶניה
וּלכָ ל־ ְ
ִא ְשׁתּוֹ
ִל ְפנִ נָּה
וְ נָתַ ן
portions and-daughters-her sons-her and-to-all wife-his to-Peninnah and-he-gives
190
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
(subordinate yk@i clause +) MyIp%0f)a txa)a
5a
. . . (?)
hnFmf
Nt%'yI
hn%Fxal;w%
one portion he-gives and-to-Hannah
That man would / used to go up from his town regularly on pilgrimages to worship and sacrifice to YHWH of hosts at Shiloh, where Eli’s two sons, Hophni and Pinhas, were serving as priests to YHWH. When the particular day came [on each pilgrimage] for Elqanah to offer a sacrifice, he used to give a portion each to his wife Peninnah and to all her sons and daughters. To Hannah, however, he would give a double(?)/half(?) portion. . . . 1 Samuel 1:3a–5a
Clauses 3a and 4c are initiated with vav-consecutive + fientive Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation verbs. These clauses express habitual aspect in story-past, which is distinct here from a mainline. Notice that clause 5a, with its fientive Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation continuing the habitual aspect denoted in 4c, serves as another example of non-vayyiqtol X–V for sideline/exposition action (see §4.2.2.1.1). 4.2.2.1.3 Verbless Clauses Clauses can contain participles that convey fientivity. A participle is commonly used as a predicator in a verbless clause. Though this VERBAL PARTICIPLE (see the section VERBAL PARTICIPLE, p. 91) in Biblical Hebrew seems to approximate the function of a finite verb, a clause with a verbal participle is nevertheless considered verbless. Qal active participle
3a
hz@emi
rhfhf-l)e MydIm;(o
from-this the-mountain
3b
hz@emi
to
Myt@i#$;lip;w%
standing and-Philistines
rhfhf-l)e MydIm;(o l)'rF#&;yIw:
from-this the-mountain
to
standing and-Israel
The Philistines occupied the high ground on one side and the Israelites occupied the high ground on the other. 1 Samuel 17:3a–b Admittedly, one could argue that “standing” may not be very action oriented. That may well be true. I have, however, kept the form of the participle and the 191
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
textual environment in mind. It is a Qal active participle, which commonly conveys fientivity, as distinct from Qal stative participles (for notions of fientivity and stativity see the section FIENTIVE AND STATIVE, p. 100, under VERB). My translation of an army occupying a position tries to convey the fientivity and dynamism entailed in maintaining a strategic battle position. 4.2.2.2 The Non-vayyiqtol as Sideline/Exposition Non-action Exposition that reflects non-action and/or setting is presented as (1) verbless and (2) X–V, where the verbal form is stative. 4.2.2.2.1 Verbless Clauses My#$inF
2a
yt@'#$;
wOlw:
women two-of and-to-him
hn%Fxa txa)a
2b
Hannah
hn%FnIp%;
2c
M#$'
one name-of
tynI#$%'ha
M#$'w:
Peninnah the-second and-name-of
He [Elqanah] had two wives, one named Hannah, the other Peninnah. 1 Samuel 1:2a–c
4.2.2.2.2 X–V Clauses X–V clauses contain a stative verbal noun or stative Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation. stative participle = verbal adjective
MynIq'z:
11a
hrF#&fw:
MhfrFb;)aw:
old and-Sarah and-Abraham
Now Abraham and Sarah were old. Genesis 18:11 Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation
10a
Nqe$z2@mi
w%db;kf@ l)'rF#&;yI
from-old-age they-were-heavy
Now Israel’s eyes were dim from old age. Genesis 48:10
192
yn"y('w:
Israel and-eyes-of
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
5. ILLUSTRATION As an illustration for trying to apply these insights to a text, I have broken down the discourse of 1 Samuel 17:1–3 into main clauses including dependent/subordinate clauses associated with the main clause. Remember, this is past-time narrative. We are not considering any other type of text (speech, poetry, etc.) at the moment. hmfxfl;mi@la Mheyn"xjma-t)e Myt@i#$;lip;
TEXT, 17:1a
for-the-war
GLOSS TRANSLATION INITIAL POSITION COMMENTARY
hdFw%hyli r#$e)j hko$#&
TRANSLATION INITIAL POSITION COMMENTARY
They assembled at Socoh in Judah, vayyiqtol = vav + Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation • Unmarked mainline = §4.1.1 above. • The happening of ‘assemble’, which the verb conveys, may be a separate happening subsequent to the previous clause, 17:1a; see §4.1.1.1 above. • The happening of ‘assemble’, however, may have the same happening in mind and thus be a mainline cluster happening; see §4.1.1.2 above.
.Mym@id@A spe)e0b@; hqfz'(j Dammim
TRANSLATION INITIAL POSITION COMMENTARY
w%ps;)fy,"wA
to-Judah which Socoh and-they-assembled(-themselves)
GLOSS
GLOSS
Philistines and-they-gathered
The Philistines prepared for war. vayyiqtol = vav + Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation • Unmarked mainline = §4.1.1 above; this clause is likely a discourse-opening mainline statement that offers the “big picture,” as it were.
TEXT, 17:1b
TEXT, 17:1c
DO-camps-their
w%ps;)ayA,wA
-Nyb'w% hkowO#&
in-Efes Azeqah and-between
-Nyb'@
w%nxjyA,wA
Socoh between and-they-camped
camping at Efes-Dammim between Socoh and Azeqah. vayyiqtol = vav + Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation • Unmarked mainline = §4.1.1 above. • The happening of ‘camp’ could either be a happening subsequent to assembling together (§4.1.1.1 above) or 193
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
part of a cluster of happenings (§4.1.1.2 above) that are not necessarily precisely subsequent. w%ps;)ene l)'rF#&;yI
TEXT, 17:2a GLOSS TRANSLATION INITIAL POSITION COMMENTARY
they-assembled
-#$y)iw: lw%)#$fw:
Israel and-man-of and-Saul
Saul and Israel’s army gathered, too, Non-vayyiqtol • Marked mainline, X-qatal = §4.2.1 above; that is, this is a clause that begins with something other than a verb but does contain a Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation in the clause. • Parallel focus: I highlighted this clause in §4.2.1 above. The parallel actions of Saul and the army are being made particularly salient juxtaposed to what the Philistines were doing at the same time. See more under §3.4.1 above. • NewMCRF: Saul and the army are being newly introduced in a marked fashion into this particular episode initiated at 17:1. If we keep the broader canonical perspective in mind, however, Saul and the army, as characters, are being reactivated into the discourse in a marked fashion, ResumptiveMCRF. See above at §3.4.2.
TEXT, 17:2b
hlf)'hf
GLOSS
the-Elah in-valley-of and-they-camped
TRANSLATION INITIAL POSITION COMMENTARY
qme(0'b@;
w%nxjy,AwA
set up camp at Elah Valley, vayyiqtol = vav + Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation • Unmarked mainline = §4.1.1 above. • After the previous clause, which had a marked construction, the discourse goes back to an unmarked mainline format to represent the happening. • The happening of ‘camp’ could be either a happening subsequent to assembling together, which was expressed in a marked fashion in 17:2a, or part of a cluster of hap-
194
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
penings (§4.1.1.2 above) that are not necessarily precisely subsequent. TEXT, 17:2c GLOSS TRANSLATION INITIAL POSITION COMMENTARY
TEXT, 17:3a GLOSS TRANSLATION INITIAL POSITION COMMENTARY
TEXT, 17:3b GLOSS TRANSLATION INITIAL POSITION COMMENTARY
.Myt@i#$;lip%; t)rAq;li hmfxfl;mi Philistines
to-meet
w%kr:(ayA,wA
battle and-they-arranged
and drew up battle lines opposite the Philistine army. vayyiqtol = vav + Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation • Unmarked mainline = §4.1.1 above. • The happening of ‘arrange’ is likely a happening subsequent to setting up camp, the happening in 17:2b (see §4.1.1.1 above). hz@emi
rhfhf-l)e MydIm;(o
from-this the-mountain
to
Myt@i#$;lip;w%
standing and-Philistines
Now the Philistines occupied the high ground on one side Non-vayyiqtol • Marked construction of non-vayyiqtol as sideline/exposition = §4.2.2 above. • The discourse breaks off from mainline fientive happenings to help describe the setting. • Above I analyzed this clause as non-vayyiqtol as sideline/exposition action expressed through a verbless clause (see §4.2.2.1.3 above). • ResumptiveMCRF: Saul and the army have been the syntactic subject and the topic of the previous clause. The Philistines are reintroduced as the topic into the discourse in a marked way. hz@emi
rhfhf-l)e MydIm;(o l)'rF#&;yIw:
from-this the-mountain
to
standing and-Israel
while Israel occupied the high ground on the other. Non-vayyiqtol • Marked construction of non-vayyiqtol as sideline/exposition = §4.2.2 above. 195
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS • Above
I analyzed this clause as non-vayyiqtol as sideline/exposition action expressed through a verbless clause (see §4.2.2.1.3 above). • Parallel focus: Israel’s position is made particularly salient in relation to that of the Philistines. • ResumptiveMCRF: Israel is reintroduced as the grammatical subject and topic of this clause. .Mheyn'yb'@
TEXT, 17:3c
between-them and-the-valley
GLOSS TRANSLATION INITIAL POSITION COMMENTARY
)y:g%Ahaw:
The valley lay between them. Non-vayyiqtol • Marked construction of non-vayyiqtol as sideline/exposition non-action expressed through a verbless clause = §4.2.2.2.1 above. • Focus: the valley ()y:g%Aha) is prominent or salient information. • NewMCRF: the valley, into which Goliath struts daily and in which David eventually kills Goliath, is introduced into the text.
6. CONCLUDING REMARK I have treated the Hebrew Bible text, as do most discourse analysts, in its final form—as though one person sat down and penned precisely what is there. But this is hardly how our texts came to be. Biblical texts are a tension of unity, diversity, and complexity. Source critics may look at “final form”–oriented approaches and understandably cry “foul!” The texts, after all, are diachronic and heavily reliant on sources. How can one be certain that a particular feature is markedness in discourse (or whatever) and not simply a stitch, a seam between sources? The short answer is that no one can be certain. The text of the Hebrew Bible is complex in its origin and development. This necessitates that discourse analysts hedge what they say about “final form” phenomena. Prudence dictates acknowledging that a join or a seam may ultimately be behind what is labeled a particular discourse feature. 196
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
At the same time, however, if one may admit that a given text of the Hebrew Bible is a worked-over piece derived from multiple sources over generations of time, one may also admit that it is indeed worked over. No one should think it ludicrous to expect texts so central and core to the very fabric of a people group to be, for the most part, put together well35—to communicate well according to the conventions of the literary language we call Biblical Hebrew. Here I find insight from a text like the Mesha Inscription, which I analyzed in my Vetus Testamentum article. Multiple sources behind the inscription’s final text are likely not part of the equation to the degree they are for the Hebrew Bible. The text tells a story in the conventions of the Moabite literary language of the day in which it was written, and the text has remained the same for millennia. What is fascinating is that one finds similar, if not precisely the same, discourse phenomena as that of the Hebrew Bible text. This ancient text that comes directly from antiquity and so closely parallels Hebrew Bible textual phenomena can argue that the Hebrew Bible text, in the final analysis, has been well put together in its language medium. Like a photograph, writing is representation. We have looked in cursory fashion at story and discourse and how the blend of syntax, semantics, and pragmatics can inform your analysis of text.
35
The spliced-together two versions of the David and Goliath story (1 Samuel 16:14–17:58), seen by the LXX’s discourse alongside the MT’s discourse, is a classic among the counter-examples.
197
↜B Bibliograp
Bibliography Barnwell, Katharine. Introduction to Semantics and Translation. 2nd ed. Horsley Green, England: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1980. Bergen, R. D. “Text as a Guide to Authorial Intention: An Introduction to Discourse Criticism.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 30 (1987): 327–36. Chatman, Seymour. Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978. Cook, John A. “The Biblical Hebrew Verbal System: A Grammaticalization Approach.” PhD diss., Department of Hebrew and Semitic Studies, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 2002. ———. “The Hebrew Verb: A Grammaticalization Approach.” Zeitschrift für Alt hebraistik 14.2 (2001): 117–43. Dik, Simon C. The Theory of Functional Grammar. Part 1: The Structure of the Clause. Edited by Kees Hengeveld. 2nd, rev. ed. Functional Grammar Series 20. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1997. Fauconnier, Gilles. Mental Spaces: Aspects of Meaning Construction in Natural Lan guage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Fauconnier, Gilles, and Mark Turner. The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. New York: Basic Books, 2002. Halliday, M. A. K. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 2nd ed. London: Arnold, 1994. Joüon, P. A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew. Translated and revised by T. Muraoka. Corrected 2nd ed. Rome: Gregorian and Biblical Press, 2009. Kemmer, Suzanne. The Middle Voice. Typological Studies in Language 23. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1993.
199
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜B Bibliograp
Long, Gary A. “מחק.” Pages 921–22 in vol. 2 of New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. Edited by W.€VanGemeren. 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997. ———. “The Written Story: Toward Understanding Text as Representation and Function.” Vetus Testamentum 49 (1999): 165–85. Lyons, John. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968. Miller, Cynthia L. The Representation of Speech in Biblical Hebrew Narrative: A Lin guistic Analysis. Harvard Semitic Museum Monographs 55. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996. Rozelaar, M. “An Unrecognized Part of the Human Anatomy.” Judaism 37 (1988): 97–101. Thompson, Jeremy. “Learning Biblical Hebrew Vocabulary: Insights from Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition.” PhD diss., University of Stellenbosch, 2011. van der Merwe, Christo H. J., Jackie A. Naudé, and Jan€H. Kroeze. A Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar. Biblical Languages: Hebrew 3. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999. Waltke, Bruce K., and M. O’Connor. An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990.
200
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Ind
Index a (English indefinite article) 33 absolute future progressive. See tense: absolute future progressive absolute future tense. See tense: absolute future absolute past progressive tense. See tense: absolute past progressive absolute past tense. See tense: absolute past absolute present progressive. See tense: absolute present progressive absolute present tense. See tense: absolute present acrolect = prestige xvii, 51, 118, 120, 121, 129, 131, 132 active topic. See topic/topicality: given/ active active voice. See voice: active Activemcrf. See marked cohesion reference frame (mcrf): Given/Activemcrf adjective 37, 44, 80, 81, 86 attributive descriptive (English) 68, 73, 91 attributive descriptive (Hebrew) 37, 73 comparative descriptive (English) 68, 69, 73, 76 comparative descriptive (Hebrew) 76 demonstrative English 51, 52, 72, 73 Hebrew 61, 78, 79 near (English) 72 near (Hebrew) 78 remote (English) 72 remote (Hebrew) 78 descriptive (English) 68, 73 descriptive (Hebrew) 74, 76 interrogative (English) 71 interrogative (Hebrew) 78
possessive (English) 49, 50, 71 possessive (Hebrew) 77 predicate descriptive English 68, 73 Hebrew 74 Hebrew verbal 74 Hebrew verbless 74, 151 substantive descriptive (English) 68, 69, 73 substantive descriptive (Hebrew) 75 superlative descriptive (English) 68, 70, 73 superlative descriptive (Hebrew) 76 adjunct. See adverbial adjunct/modifier adnominal 68 adverb 68, 80, 81, 82, 83, 152, 166, 170 of cause or purpose 81, 82 derived (Hebrew) 83 of intensity 81, 82 locative 152 of manner 81, 82 of place 80, 82 primitive (Hebrew) 82 of quantity 81, 82 of time 80, 81 adverbial 6, 66, 80, 84, 97, 135, 147, 148, 150, 152, 157 adverbial adjunct/modifier 84, 94, 96, 99, 147, 148, 157, 158, 160, 162, 177 infinitive clause adverbial adjunct/modifier 94, 96, 161, 165 non-prepositional phrase adverbial adjunct/modifier 162 prepositional phrase adverbial adjunct/ modifier 164 adverbial complement 84, 94, 99, 101, 147, 148, 157, 158, 162, 177
201
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Ind direct object adverbial complement 46, 64, 67, 99, 101, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 158, 159, 189 double direct object adverbial complement 159 infinitive clause adverbial complement 94, 96, 161, 165 internal adverbial complement 159 internal cognate adverbial complement 160 internal non-cognate adverbial complement 160 affector–affected. See role as semantic concept: affected; role as semantic concept: affector affricative 10, 12 agent. See role as semantic concept: agent Aktionsart 110 allomorph 4 allophone 4 alveolar 8, 10, 12, 13 alveopalatal 13, 16 American English 16, 31, 32, 51 an (English indefinite article) 33 anaphora 37, 47 animate 50, 54, 55, 59, 62, 64 antecedent 47, 48, 53, 62. See also referent article English definite 33 English indefinite 33 Hebrew definite. See noun: Hebrew: articular articular noun. See noun: Hebrew: articular Ashkenazi 7 aspect 91, 99, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 110, 154, 184, 191 definition of 104 imperfective 104, 107, 111, 112, 113, 114 definition of 106
perfective 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114 definition of 104 resultative/stative 104, 108 definition of 107 attribute 68, 69, 70, 73, 76, 168 attributive adjective. See adjective: attributive descriptive attributive relative clause. See relative clause: dependent/attributive, Hebrew auxiliary verb. See verb: auxiliary basilect xvii, 120 Ben Asher 7 Ben Naphtali 7 beneficiary. See role as semantic concept: beneficiary bilabial 8, 12 British English 31, 32 carrier–attribute. See role as semantic concept: attribute; role as semantic concept: carrier case(s) 158 cataphora 47 circumstance as semantic concept 162, 166, 170 goal 106 clause 3, 6, 30, 31, 39, 41, 44, 46, 48, 52, 54, 56, 57, 61, 63, 66, 74, 90, 91, 93, 95, 96, 97, 116, 120, 122, 135, 138, 145, 146, 149, 150, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 163, 169, 173, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196 dependent/subordinate 6, 39, 53, 62, 107, 117, 119, 145, 146, 193
202
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Ind elements at beginning of 180, 181, 184 independent/main 6, 39, 53, 62, 64, 66, 99, 107, 117, 119, 145, 146, 180, 181, 184, 185, 189, 193 length to achieve markedness 179 verbal 74, 94, 147, 157 anatomy of 147 verbless 37, 74 anatomy of 151 cleft clause construction 182 coherence 178, 181, 182, 189 cohesion 178, 181, 182 cohortative mood. See mood/modality collective noun. See noun: collective common noun. See noun: common comparative adjective. See adjective: comparative descriptive comparison of equal degree. See adjective: comparative descriptive comparison of greater degree. See adjective: comparative descriptive comparison of lesser degree. See adjective: comparative descriptive complement. See adverbial complement completive focus. See focus/focality: information gap: completive compound noun. See noun: compound concession 120 conjugations Prefix (Imperfect) 30, 32, 114, 149, 180, 191, 193, 194, 195 as cohortative 125, 133 as imperfective aspect 112, 113, 114 as indicative mood 113, 114, 124, 125, 133 as irreal nonvolitional mood 126 as irreal volitional mood 114, 124, 125, 130, 133 as jussive 125, 133
for negative command 124, 130 Suffix (Perfect) 5, 30, 32, 111, 112, 113, 114, 149, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 194 as indicative mood 113, 124 as irreal nonvolitional mood 127 as perfective aspect 113, 114 conjunction 6, 18, 39, 41, 155, 171 coordinating 39 English 39 Hebrew 40 semantic connections emphatic 43 logical 42 logical, casual/reason 42 logical, concession 42 logical, condition 42 logical, continuative 42 logical, contrast 42 logical, inference 42 logical, purpose 42 logical, result 42 modal 43 modal, agency/means 43 modal, comparison 43 modal, example 43 temporal/chronological 41 subordinating 39 English 40 Hebrew 41 construct chain 66, 77 construct state 152 context 91, 126, 133, 154, 160, 173 textual environment as 34, 38, 112 contrast focus. See focus/focality: contrast coordinating conjunction. See conjunction: coordinating countable noun. See noun: countable
203
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Ind dummy pronoun. See pronoun: pleonastic duration 163, 175 of discourse 175 dynamism. See verb: fientive/fientivity
counter-presuppositional focus. See focus/focality: contrast: counter-presuppositional declarative mood = indicative mood. See mood/modality definite article. See article definiteness 73, 89, 151 demonstrative adjective. See adjective: demonstrative demonstrative pronoun. See pronoun: demonstrative dental 8 dependent relative clause. See relative clause: dependent/attributive, Hebrew dependent/subordinate clause. See clause: dependent/subordinate descriptive, or ascriptive, or classificatory clause 150, 151, 154, 155 diphthong 13, 16, 17 direct object. See adverbial complement: direct object adverbial complement direct object adverbial complement. See adverbial complement: direct object adverbial complement direct object marker 58, 59 discourse 3, 110, 111, 154, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 184, 186, 187, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197. See also story: and discourse discourse analysis 173, 178 discourse-time 176 discourse-time = story-time 176 double direct object adverbial complement. See adverbial complement: double direct object adverbial complement dual 31 Hebrew 32
effector–effected. See role as semantic concept: effected; role as semantic concept: effector ellipsis 175 emic 3, 178 etic 3, 5, 178, 186 expanding focus. See focus/focality: contrast: counter-presuppositional, expanding expression 20, 76, 119, 178, 179 definition of 3 fientive/fientivity. See verb: fientive/ fientivity finite verb. See verb: finite first-person volition. See mood/modality focus/focality 155, 156, 179, 181, 182, 183, 184, 188, 189, 196 contrast 183 counter-presuppositional 155, 183 counter-presuppositional, expanding 184 counter-presuppositional, rejecting 183 counter-presuppositional, replacing 183 counter-presuppositional, restricting 184 counter-presuppositional, selecting 184, 187 parallel 183, 189, 194, 196 information gap 183 completive 183, 187 questioning 183
204
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Ind fricative 9, 10, 12, 13 fronting 179, 182 future perfect. See tense: future perfect future perfect progressive. See tense: future perfect progressive future tense. See tense: absolute future; tense: relative future gender 4, 29, 30, 51, 61, 66, 71, 72, 73, 94 feminine 4, 5, 29, 30, 49, 50, 53, 58, 59, 61, 71, 78 English 29 Hebrew 30, 65 Hebrew 32, 45, 65, 88, 89, 90, 151 masculine 20, 29, 30, 49, 50, 53, 58, 59, 61, 66, 71, 78 English 29 Hebrew 30 neuter 29, 49, 50, 53, 71 English 29 gerund 97, 98 gerund test 97 Givenmcrf. See marked cohesion reference frame (mcrf): Given/Activemcrf given topic. See topic/topicality: given/ active glide 10, 12, 13, 16 gloss xvii, xix, 22 glottal 9, 12, 33 glottis 10 goal. See role as semantic concept: goal goal as semantic circumstance. See circumstance as semantic concept: goal happening 174, 175, 177, 178, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 193, 194, 195 mainline cluster 193 head. See also antecedent; referent as governing entity 160
Hifil Stem 125, 133, 140, 159 Hitpael Stem 61, 88, 141, 142 Hofal Stem 88, 141 identificatory/equative clause 150, 154 identified–identifier. See role as semantic concept: identified; role as semantic concept: identifier imperative mood. See mood/modality Imperfect Conjugation. See conjugations: Prefix (Imperfect) imperfectivity. See aspect: imperfective inanimate 50, 51, 54, 55, 59, 60, 62 indefinite article. See article: indefinite independent clause. See also clause: independent/main as different from main clause 145 independent pronoun. See pronoun: independent (Hebrew) independent relative clause. See relative clause: independent (Hebrew) indicative mood. See mood/modality infinitive 44, 88, 93, 122 English 93, 94, 121 Hebrew 94, 99 absolute 94, 95, 98, 125 absolute as imperative 125, 130 construct 94, 95, 98 infinitive absolute. See infinitive: Hebrew: absolute infinitive clause 145 English as adverbial adjunct/modifier 94, 161, 165 as adverbial complement 94, 161, 165 as predicate nominative 93 as subject 93 Hebrew as adverbial adjunct/modifier 96, 165
205
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Ind as adverbial complement 96, 161 as subject 96 infinitive clause adverbial adjunct/modifier. See adverbial adjunct/modifier: infinitive clause adverbial adjunct/ modifier infinitive clause adverbial complement. See adverbial complement: infinitive clause adverbial complement infinitive construct. See infinitive: Hebrew: construct information gap focus. See focus/focality: information gap initiator. See role as semantic concept: initiator instrument. See role as semantic concept: instrument internal adverbial complement. See adverbial complement: internal adverbial complement internal cognate adverbial complement. See adverbial complement: internal cognate adverbial complement internal non-cognate adverbial complement. See adverbial complement: internal non-cognate adverbial complement interrogative adjective. See adjective: interrogative interrogative pronoun. See pronoun: interrogative intonation 179, 182, 183, 187, 189 for focus/focality 183 intransitive. See verb: intransitive/ intransitivity irreal mood. See mood/modality iterativity. See verb: iterativity jussive mood. See mood/modality juxtaposition 74, 90, 153, 175, 189, 194
labial 8 labiodental 8, 12 labiovelar 16 lateral 10, 12 lex/lexeme 3, 4, 5 linking verb 68, 150, 151 liquid 10 main clause. See also clause: independent/ main as different from independent clause 145 mainline 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 191, 193, 195 marked 188, 194 unmarked 193, 194, 195 manner. See role as semantic concept: manner manner of articulation 8 marked. See markedness marked cohesion reference frame (mcrf) 182, 184, 188, 189 Given/Activemcrf 184, 187, 189 Newmcrf 184, 189, 194, 196 Resumptivemcrf 184, 189, 194, 195, 196 markedness 155, 173, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 187, 188, 189, 194, 195, 196 order 179, 180, 181 quantity 179, 180 Masoretic Text 7, 14 mcrf. See marked cohesion reference frame (mcrf) middle voice. See voice modal auxiliary 116, 122 Modern Hebrew 7, 20 mood/modality 91, 99, 111, 115, 129, 154 English irreal nonvolitional 115, 119 nonvolitional modal 116
206
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Ind nonvolitional subjunctive 115, 119, 120, 121 volitional 115 volitional imperative 115, 118, 119, 129, 131, 132 volitional jussive 119, 132 English real = indicative 110, 115, 118, 129, 132 Hebrew irreal nonvolitional subjunctive 123 volitional cohortative 125, 133 volitional imperative 124, 130 volitional jussive 124, 125, 126, 130, 133, 134 Hebrew real = indicative 110, 113, 114 irreal 123 nonvolitional 123 nonvolitional capability 95, 122, 123, 127 nonvolitional deliberation 95, 123, 127 nonvolitional obligation 95, 123, 126 nonvolitional permission 95, 123, 126 volitional 117, 123, 124, 126, 131, 132 real = indicative 116, 117, 118, 119, 123, 124, 129, 131, 132 morph/morpheme 3, 4, 5, 29, 30, 158 Hebrew 32 nasal 10, 12 new topic. See topic/topicality: new Newmcrf. See marked cohesion reference frame (mcrf): Newmcrf Nifal Stem 61, 88, 141, 142 nominal 4, 33, 44, 85, 86, 87, 150, 152, 166, 169 nonarticular, definition of 34 nonarticular noun. See noun: Hebrew: nonarticular nonfinite verb. See verb: nonfinite
non-prepositional phrase adverbial adjunct/modifier. See adverbial adjunct/modifier: non-prepositional phrase adverbial adjunct/modifier non-vayyiqtol 180, 181, 187, 188, 189, 191, 195, 196 as marked 181 nonvolitional mood. See mood/modality noun xvii, 20, 29, 30, 31, 32, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 53, 59, 61, 62, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 79, 81, 87, 89, 93, 95, 97, 151, 152, 153, 166, 169, 170 collective 31 common 20, 45, 152 compound 45 countable 31 English 31 Hebrew 32, 74 articular 34, 35, 37, 38, 61, 79, 91 nonarticular 34, 37, 38 proper 47, 153 English 45 Hebrew 45 number 31, 65, 66, 71, 73, 94 Hebrew 32, 45, 88, 89, 90, 151 object of preposition 164. See also prepositional phrase object personal pronoun. See pronoun: personal: object obstruent 9, 10 order 150, 175 order markedness. See markedness: order palatal 9 paragraph 3 parallel focus. See focus/focality: contrast: parallel
207
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Ind participant as semantic concept. See role participial phrase. See participle: English: adjectival participle 44, 94 English adjectival 85, 86, 89 adjectival, attributive 86, 91 adjectival, participial phrase 86 adjectival, predicate 87 adjectival, single word 86 adjectival, substantive 87 participial phrase 87 verbal 85 verbal, past 85, 86 verbal, present 85, 97 Hebrew 99 active 88, 89, 192 adjectival 86, 89 adjectival, attributive 89 adjectival, predicate 89 adjectival, predicate (active) 89 adjectival, predicate (passive) 89, 92 adjectival, substantive 90 passive 88, 89 relative 89, 91 stative 89, 192 verbal 89, 91, 154, 190, 191 verbal passive 92 passive voice. See voice past perfect / pluperfect. See tense: past perfect / pluperfect past perfect / pluperfect progressive. See tense: past perfect / pluperfect progressive past tense. See tense: absolute past; tense: relative past past-time narrative 112, 180, 181, 186, 193 patient. See role as semantic concept: patient
pause 177 Perfect Conjugation. See conjugations: Suffix (Perfect) perfect tense. See tense: perfect perfectivity. See aspect: perfective personal pronoun. See pronoun: personal pharyngeal 9 phone/phoneme 3, 4, 15 phrase 3, 21, 39, 40, 47, 87, 153, 179, 181 Piel Stem 140 place of articulation 8 plosive/stop 9, 10, 12, 13, 33 pluperfect. See tense: past perfect / pluperfect plural/plurality 4, 31, 51, 77, 132, 155 English 31, 72, 119 Hebrew 32, 78 possessed 71, 77 possessive adjective. See adjective: possessive possessive pronoun. See pronoun: possessive possessive suffix 66, 88 possessor 49, 66, 71 postcedent 47, 48 pragmatics 173, 177, 178, 179, 197 predicate 5, 37, 74, 75, 89, 92, 145, 147, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 157, 169, 180 definition of 150 predicate adjective. See adjective: predicate descriptive; predication: verbless: adjective predicate predicate nominative 93 predication 5, 6 verbal 6, 74, 75, 147, 150, 157 verbless 74, 91, 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 190, 191, 195, 196 adjective predicate 151
208
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Ind adverb(ial) predicate 152 (non)existence predicate 152 participle predicate 154 participle predicate = verbal participle 154 substantive predicate 153, 154 Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation. See conjugations: Prefix (Imperfect) Prefix (Imperfect) Conjugation and imperfective aspect. See chapter on aspect preposition 39, 41, 44, 46, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 77, 152, 163, 164 prepositional phrase 152, 166, 182 as semantic circumstance 170, 171 in verbless clause 152. See also predication: verbless: adverb(ial) predicate prepositional phrase adverbial adjunct/ modifier. See adverbial adjunct/ modifier: prepositional phrase adverbial adjunct/modifier present perfect. See tense: present perfect present perfect progressive. See tense: present perfect progressive present tense. See tense: absolute present; tense: relative present preterite 112 primitive adverbs. See adverbs: primitive process as semantic concept 166, 170 material = doing 148, 158, 166 mental = sensing 148, 166, 167 relational = being 166, 168 pronoun 29, 44 anaphora 47 cataphora/prolepsis 47 demonstrative 51 English 72 Hebrew 79 near (English) 51
near (Hebrew) 61 remote (English) 51 remote (Hebrew) 61 Hebrew 74 independent (Hebrew) 57 interrogative (English) 50 interrogative (Hebrew) 59 personal 77, 155 English subject case 118, 129 object (English) 49 object (Hebrew) 58 subject (English) 48 subject (Hebrew) 57, 58, 78 pleonastic 155 possessive (English) 49 possessive (Hebrew) 77 reflexive 141, 142 English 52, 137, 138, 139 Hebrew 61 relative 66 English 53, 54, 55, 56 Hebrew 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66 as object of dependent/attributive relative clause (Hebrew) 64 as object of verb or preposition in relative clause (English) 55 as possessive within dependent/attributive relative clause (Hebrew) 65 as possessive within relative clause (English) 56 as subject of dependent/attributive relative clause (Hebrew) 63 as subject of relative clause (English) 54 resumptive 64, 65, 66 suffixed (Hebrew) 57 proper noun. See noun: proper prosody for focus/focality 183
209
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Ind P–S verbless clause syntax 150, 151, 154, 155, 156 Pual Stem 88, 141 Qal Stem 5, 88, 125, 133, 140, 192 qatal 188 quantity 31 quantity markedness. See markedness: quantity questioning focus. See focus/focality: information gap: questioning real mood. See mood/modality receptor. See role as semantic concept: receptor reference frame 178, 179, 181, 184, 189 referent 47, 48, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 61, 62, 178, 184. See also antecedent reflexive pronoun. See pronoun: reflexive reflexive voice. See voice rejecting focus. See focus/focality: contrast: counter-presuppositional, rejecting relative clause 37, 55, 62 dependent/attributive (Hebrew) 61, 62, 63 English 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 as function of participle (Hebrew) 91 Hebrew 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66 independent (Hebrew) 61, 66, 67 nonrestrictive (English) 53, 57 nonrestrictive (Hebrew) 62, 66 restrictive (English) 53, 56 restrictive (Hebrew) 62, 66 relative future tense. See tense: relative future relative past tense. See tense: relative past relative present tense. See tense: relative present relative pronoun. See pronoun: relative
replacing focus. See focus/focality: contrast: counter-presuppositional, replacing representation, writing as 173, 174, 176, 177, 188, 197 restricting focus. See focus/focality: contrast: counter-presuppositional, restricting resumed topic. See topic/topicality: resumed resumptive pronoun. See pronoun: resumptive Resumptivemcrf. See marked cohesion reference frame (mcrf): Resumptivemcrf role as semantic concept 135, 166, 169, 170 affected 166, 167, 169 affector 166, 167, 169 agent 135, 142, 166, 177 attribute 168, 169 beneficiary 52, 135, 169, 170, 177 carrier 168, 169 effected 167, 169 effector 167, 169 goal 177 identified 168, 169 identifier 168, 169 initiator 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140 instrument 177 manner 177 patient 135, 142, 166, 177 phenomenon 135, 167, 169 processed 169 receptor 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140 senser 135, 167, 169 Sabra Hebrew 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16, 33 selecting focus. See focus/focality: contrast: counter-presuppositional, selecting semantic field 160
210
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Ind semantic role. See role as semantic concept semantics 173, 177, 179, 197 senser–phenomenon. See role as semantic concept: phenomenon; role as semantic concept: senser sentence 3, 6, 23, 45, 54, 56, 57, 63, 107, 185 Sephardi 7, 8, 9 sibilant 9, 31 sideline/exposition 186, 187, 188, 189, 191, 195, 196 simple/pure vowel 13 singular/singularity 4, 5, 20, 31, 51, 66, 77, 132 English 31, 72, 119 Hebrew 32, 65, 78 sonorant 9, 10 source language (SL) 21, 22, 23 S–P verbless clause syntax 150, 151, 154, 155, 156 S–pronoun–P verbless clause syntax 156 stative. See verb: stative story 174, 175, 178, 180, 184, 186, 188, 197 and discourse 173, 174, 178, 197 story-existents 174 story-future 174 story-past 174, 187, 190, 191 story-present 174 story-time 175, 176, 177 subject 6, 30, 31, 46, 48, 50, 51, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 64, 66, 74, 90, 97, 135, 142, 149, 150, 162, 169, 177, 195, 196 subject of clause 5, 37, 52, 74, 93, 95, 118, 129, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 145, 147, 148, 157, 180 subject personal pronoun. See pronoun: personal: subject subjunctive mood. See mood/modality
subordinating conjunction. See conjunction: subordinating substantive 44, 45, 87, 152, 153, 163 suffix 57, 58, 59, 66, 77, 94 Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation. See conjugations: Suffix (Perfect) Suffix (Perfect) Conjugation and perfective aspect. See chapter on aspect suffixed pronoun. See pronoun: suffixed, Hebrew summary 175, 176 superlative adjective. See adjective: superlative descriptive syllable coda 18 syllable nucleus 18 syllable onset 18 syntagm 5, 177, 179, 181, 185, 186 syntagm = string of words 145 syntax 52, 135, 136, 150, 155, 156, 158, 173, 177, 179, 180, 197 for focus/focality 183 target language (TL) 21, 22 tense 4, 5, 85, 86, 88, 91, 99, 102, 104, 105, 107, 108, 110, 111, 154 absolute 102 absolute future 102, 106, 118, 129, 131, 132 absolute future progressive 103 absolute past 102, 106, 107, 112 absolute past progressive 85, 103, 107 absolute present 102 absolute present progressive 85, 103 future perfect 109 future perfect progressive 109 past perfect / pluperfect 86, 108 past perfect / pluperfect progressive 109 present perfect 109 present perfect progressive 86, 109
211
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Ind relative 102, 103 relative future 104 relative past 104, 107 relative present 104 textual environment 126, 133, 154, 155, 180, 188, 192 the (English definite article) 33 third-person volition. See mood/modality Tiberian Hebrew 7, 9, 14, 15, 16 tongue height 13 topic/topicality 6, 173, 178, 195, 196 given/active 178 new 178 resumed 178 transitive. See verb: transitive/transitivity translation completely literal 23 form-oriented 23 idiomatic 24 meaning-oriented 23 modified literal 23 trill 10, 13 unmarked. See unmarkedness unmarkedness 173, 179, 181, 182, 188, 193, 194, 195 uvular 9, 13 vav-consecutive 112, 180, 190, 191 vav-conversive 112 vav-relative 112 vav-reversive 112 vayyiqtol 180, 184, 185, 186, 187, 189, 193, 194, 195 as past tense 112 as unmarked 181 velar 9, 12, 13 veqatal 127
verb 5, 29, 31, 44, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 75, 80, 81, 84, 85, 86, 87, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 99, 100, 102, 104, 110, 111, 116, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 129, 131, 132, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 147, 148, 149, 150, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 166, 168, 188, 189, 190, 191, 193, 194 auxiliary 85, 86 fientive/fientivity 89, 92, 100, 110, 111, 174, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 195 finite 91, 99, 150, 154, 191 intransitive/intransitivity 99, 100, 136, 140, 160 iterativity 110 linking 74, 87 nonfinite 88, 93, 94, 99, 150 stative/stativity 89, 100, 101, 110, 192 transitive/transitivity 99, 100, 110, 136, 140, 160 verbal noun 93, 97, 192 verbal predication. See predication: verbal verb-initial clause 189, 190 verbless predication. See predication: verbless vocal tract 8, 9 voice (as grammatical phenomenon) 85, 110, 135 active 135 English active 86, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140 middle 136, 138, 139, 140 middle, cognition 140 middle, grooming 139 middle, motion 139 middle, spontaneous event 139 passive 86, 137 reflexive 137, 138
212
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
↜渕 Ind Hebrew 88 active 88, 140 middle 88, 142 passive 88, 92, 141 reflexive 88, 141 middle 135 passive 135 reflexive 135 voice (as sound production) 8, 11 voiced 11, 12, 13, 16 voiceless 11, 12, 13, 33 volition. See mood/modality
volitional mood. See mood/modality vowel close 13 open 13 quality/timbre 14 simple/pure 16 tenseness 14 vowel quality/timbre 13, 14 vowel quantity/length 13, 14, 15 X-qatal 188, 194 X–V clause 189, 190, 191, 192
213
(Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
